CULTURE BY C.4.1

1. HASANAH (12 23 005)

Culture of France and of the French people has been shaped by geography, by profound historical events, and by foreign and internal forces and groups. France, and in particular Paris, has played an important role as a center of high culture since the 17th century, first in Europe, and from the 19th century on, world wide

Main article: Religion in France

France is a secular country where freedom of thought and of religion is preserved, by virtue of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Republic is based on the principle of laïcité, that is of freedom of religion (including of agnosticism and atheism) enforced by the Jules Ferry laws and the 1905 law on the separation of the State and the Church, enacted at the beginning of the Third Republic (1871–1940). A January 2007 poll found that 61% of the French population describe themselves as Roman Catholics, 21% as Atheists, 4% as Muslims, 3% as Protestants, 1% as Buddhists, and 1% as Jews. France guarantees freedom of religion as a constitutional right and the government generally respects this right in practice. A long history of violent conflict between groups led the state to break its ties to the Catholic Church early in the last century and adopt a strong commitment to maintaining a totally secular public sector.^[

                        

Notre-Dame de Reims is the Roman Catholic cathedral where the kings of France were crowned until 1805.

Language

Main articles: French language, Languages of France, and Language policy in France

Some action has been taken by the government in order to promote French culture and the French language. For instance, there exists a system of subsidies and preferential loans for supporting French cinema. The Toubon law, from the name of the conservative culture minister who promoted it, makes it mandatory to use French in advertisements directed to the general public. France counts many regional languages, some of them being very different from standard French such as Breton and Alsatian. Some regional languages are Roman, like French, such as Occitan. The Basque language is completely unrelated to French and, indeed, to any other language in the world; its area straddles the border between the south west of France and the north of Spain. Many of those languages have enthusiastic advocates; however, the real importance of local languages remains subject to debate. In April 2001, the Minister of Education, Jack Lang, admitted formally that for more than two centuries, the political powers of the French government had repressed regional languages, and announced that bilingual education would, for the first time, be recognized, and bilingual teachers recruited in French public schools.

                Regional customs and traditions

Modern France is the result of centuries of nation building and the acquisition and incorporation of a number of historical provinces and overseas colonies into its geographical and political structure. These regions all evolved with their own specific cultural and linguistic traditions in fashion, religious observance, regional language and accent, family structure, cuisine, leisure activities, industry, and including the simple way to pour wine, etc.The evolution of the French state and culture, from the Renaissance to today, has however promoted a centralization of politics, media and cultural production in and around Paris (and, to a lesser extent, around the other major urban centers), and the industrialization of the country in the 20th century has led to a massive move of French people from the countryside to urban areas. At the end of the 19th century, around 50% of the French depended on the land for a living; today French farmers only make up 6-7%, while 73% live in cities.^[13] Nineteenth century French literature abounds in scenes of provincial youth "coming up" to Paris to "make it" in the cultural, political or social scene of the capital (this scheme is frequent in the novels of Balzac).
The names of the historical French provinces — such as Brittany (Bretagne), Berry, Orléanais, Normandy (Normandie), Languedoc, Lyonnais, Dauphiné, Champagne, Poitou, Guyenne and Gascony (Gascogne), Burgundy (Bourgogne), Picardy (Picardie), Provence, Touraine, Limousin, Auvergne, Béarn, Alsace, Flanders, Lorraine, Corsica (Corse), Savoy (Savoie)...

There are huge differences in life style, socioeconomic status and world view between Paris and the provinces. The French often use the expression "la France profonde" ("Deep France", similar to "heartland") to designate the profoundly "French" aspects of provincial towns, village life and rural agricultural culture, which escape the hegemony of Paris. The expression can however have a pejorative meaning, similar to the expression "le désert français" ("the French desert") used to describe a lack of acculturation of the provinces. Another expression, "terroir" is a French term originally used for wine and coffee to denote the special characteristics that geography bestowed upon these products. It can be very loosely translated as "a sense of place" which is embodied in certain qualities, and the sum of the effects that the local environment (especially the "soil") has had on the growth of the product. The use of the term has since been generalized to talk about many cultural products.
In addition to its metropolitan territory, France also consists of overseas departments made up of its former colonies of Guadeloupe, Martinique and French Guiana in the Caribbean, and Mayotte and Réunion in the Indian Ocean. (There also exist a number of "overseas collectivities" and "overseas territories". For a full discussion, see administrative divisions of France. Since 1982, following the French government’s policy of decentralisation, overseas departments have elected regional councils with powers similar to those of the regions of metropolitan France. As a result of a constitutional revision which occurred in 2003, these regions are now to be called overseas regions.) These overseas departments have the same political status as metropolitan departments and are integral parts of France, (similar to the way in which Hawaii is a state and an integral part of the United States), yet they also have specific cultural and linguistic traditions which set them apart. Certain elements of overseas culture have also been introduced to metropolitan culture (as, for example, the musical form the biguine).
Industrialization, immigration and urbanization in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have also created new socioeconomic regional communities in France, both urban (like Paris, Lyon, Villeurbanne, Lille, Marseille, etc.) and the suburban and working class hinterlands (like Seine-Saint-Denis)

Other specific communities

Paris has traditionally been associated with alternative, artistic or intellectual subcultures, many of which involved foreigners. Such subcultures include the "Bohemians"

There are gay and lesbian communities in the cities, particularly in the Paris metropolitan area (such as in Le Marais district of the capital). Although homosexuality is perhaps not as well tolerated in France as in Spain, Scandinavia, and the Benelux nations, surveys of the French public reveal a considerable shift in attitudes comparable to other Western European nations. As of 2001, 55% of the French consider homosexuality "an acceptable lifestyle."^[14] The past mayor of Paris, Bertrand Delanoë, i

Social class

Main article: Social class in France

        Families and romantic relationships

        

Household structure

Growing out of the values of the Catholic Church and rural communities, the basic unit of French society was traditionally held to be the family.^[16] Over the twentieth century, the "traditional" family structure in France has evolved from extended families to, after World War II, nuclear families.
According to INSEE figures, household and family composition in metropolitan France continues to evolve. Most significantly, from 1982 to 1999, single parent families have increased from 3.6% to 7.4%; there have also been increases in the number of unmarried couples, childless couples, and single men (from 8.5% to 12.5) and women (from 16.0% to 18.5%).
Voted by the French Parliament in November 1999 following some controversy, the pacte civil de solidarité ("civil pact of solidarity") commonly known as a PACS, is a form of civil union between two adults (same-sex or opposite-sex) for organizing their joint life. It brings rights and responsibilities, but less so than marriage. From a legal standpoint, a PACS is a "contract" drawn up between the two individuals, which is stamped and registered by the clerk of the court. Individuals who have registered a PACS are still considered "single" with regard to family status for some purposes, while they are increasingly considered in the same way as married couples are for other purposes. While it was pushed by the government of Prime Minister Lionel Jospin in 1998, it was also opposed, mostly by people on the right-wing who support traditionalist family values and who argued that PACS and the recognition of homosexual unions would be disastrous for French society.
Currently, same-sex marriage is legally recognized in France. However.

Role of the State

The French state has traditionally played an important role in promoting and supporting culture through the educational, linguistic, cultural and economic policies of the government and through its promotion of national identity. Because of the closeness of this relationship, cultural changes in France are often linked to, or produce, political crisis.
The relationship between the French state and culture is an old one. Under Louis XIII's minister Richelieu, the independent Académie française came under state supervision and became an official organ of control over the French language and seventeenth-century literature. During Louis XIV's reign, his minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert brought French luxury industries, like textile and porcelain, under royal control and the architecture, furniture, fashion and etiquette of the royal court (particularly at the Château de Versailles) became the preeminent model of noble culture in France (and, to a great degree, throughout Europe) during the latter half of the seventeenth century.
At times, French state policies have sought to unify the country around certain cultural norms, while at other times they have promoted regional differences within a heterogeneous French identity. The unifying effect was particularly true of the "radical period"" of the French Third Republic which fought regionalisms (including regional languages), supported anti-clericalism and a strict separation of church from state (including education) and actively promoted national identity, thus converting (as the historian Eugen Weber has put it) a "country of peasants into a nation of Frenchmen". The Vichy Regime, on the other hand, promoted regional "folk" traditions.
The cultural policies of the (current) French Fifth Republic have been varied, but a consensus seems to exist around the need for preservation of French regionalisms (such as food and language) as long as these don't undermine national identity. Meanwhile, the French state remains ambivalent over the integration into "French" culture of cultural traditions from recent immigrant groups and from foreign cultures, particularly American culture (movies, music, fashion, fast food, language, etc.). There also exists a certain fear over the perceived loss of French identity and culture in the European system and under American "cultural hegemony".

Education

Main article: Education in France

The French educational system is highly centralised. It is divided into three different stages: primary education, or enseignement primaire, corresponding to grade school in the United States; secondary education, or collège and lycée, corresponding to middle and high school in the United States; and higher education (l'université or les Grandes écoles).
Primary and secondary education is predominantly public (private schools also exist, in particular a strong nationwide network of primary and secondary Catholic education), while higher education has both public and private elements. At the end of secondary education, students take the baccalauréat exam, which allows them to pursue higher education. The baccalauréat pass rate in 2012 was 84.5%.
In 1999–2000, educational spending amounted to 7% of the French GDP and 37% of the national budget.
France's performance in math and science at the middle school level was ranked 23 in the 1995 Trends in International Math and Science Study.^[20]
Since the Jules Ferry laws of 1881-2, named after the then Minister of Public Instruction, all state-funded schools, including universities, are independent from the (Roman Catholic) Church. Education in these institutions is free. Non-secular institutions are allowed to organize education as well. The French educational system differs strongly from Northern-European and American systems in that it stresses the importance of partaking in a society as opposed to being responsibly independent.
Secular educational policy has become critical in recent issues of French multiculturalism, as in the "affair of the Islamic headscarf".

Minister of Culture

Main article: Minister of Culture (France)

The Minister of Culture is in the Government of France, the cabinet member in charge of national museums and monuments; promoting and protecting the arts (visual, plastic, theatrical, musical, dance, architectural, literary, televisual and cinematographic) in France and abroad; and managing the national archives and regional "maisons de culture" (culture centres). The Ministry of Culture is located on the Palais Royal in Paris.
The modern post of Minister of Culture was created by Charles de Gaulle in 1959 and the first Minister was the writer André Malraux. Malraux was responsible for realizing the goals of the "droit à la culture" ("the right to culture") -- an idea which had been incorporated in the French constitution and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) -- by democratizing access to culture, while also achieving the Gaullist aim of elevating the "grandeur" ("greatness") of post-war France. To this end, he created numerous regional cultural centres throughout France and actively sponsored the arts. Malraux's artistic tastes included the modern arts and the avant-garde, but on the whole he remained conservative.
The Ministry of Jacques Toubon was notable for a number of laws (the "Toubon Laws") enacted for the preservation of the French language, both in advertisements (all ads must include a French translation of foreign words) and on the radio (40% of songs on French radio stations must be in French), ostensibly in reaction to the presence of English.

Académie française

Main article: Académie française

The Académie française, or the French Academy, is the pre-eminent French learned body on matters pertaining to the French language. The Académie was officially established in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister to King Louis XIII. Suppressed in 1793 during the French Revolution, it was restored in 1803 by Napoleon Bonaparte (the Académie considers itself having been suspended, not suppressed, during the revolution). It is the oldest of the five académies of the Institut de France.
The Académie consists of forty members, known as immortels (immortals). New members are elected by the members of the Académie itself. Académicians hold office for life, but they may be removed for misconduct. The body has the task of acting as an official authority on the language; it is charged with publishing an official dictionary of the language. Its rulings, however, are only advisory; not binding on either the public or the government.

Military service

Until 1996, France had compulsory military service of young men. This has been credited by historians for further promoting a unified national identity and by breaking down regional isolationism.^[

Labor and employment policy

In France, the first labour laws were Waldeck Rousseau's laws passed in 1884. Between 1936 and 1938 the Popular Front enacted a law mandating 12 days (2 weeks) each year of paid vacation for workers, and a law limiting the work week to 40 hours, excluding overtime. The Grenelle accords negotiated on May 25 and 26th in the middle of the May 1968 crisis, reduced the working week to 44 hours and created trade union sections in each enterprise.^[21] The minimum wage was also increased by 25%.^[22] In 2000 Lionel Jospin's government then enacted the 35-hour workweek, down from 39 hours.

Healthcare and social welfare

The French are profoundly committed to the public healthcare system (called "sécurité sociale") and to their "pay-as-you-go" social welfare system.

Lifestyle

Food and alcohol

Main article: French cuisine

                                    

            

           

The French typically eat only a simple breakfast ("petit déjeuner") which consists of coffee or tea, served traditionally in a large handleless "bol" (bowl) and bread or breakfast pastries (croissants). Lunch  and dinner  are the main meals of the day. Formal four course meals consist of a starter course ("entrée"), a salad, a main course ("plat principal"), and finally a cheese or dessert course. While French cuisine is often associated with rich desserts, in most homes dessert consists of only fruit or yogurt.                       

Rates of obesity and heart disease in France have traditionally been lower than in other north-western European countries. . French cuisine and eating habits have however come under great pressure in recent years from modern fast food, American products and the new global agricultural industry. While French youth culture has gravitated toward fast food and American eating habits (with an attendant rise in obesity).
In France, cutlery is used in the continental manner (with the fork in the left hand, prongs facing down and the knife in the right hand).
The legal drinking age is officially 18 (see: Legal drinking age).France is one of the oldest wine producing regions of Europe.

Tobacco and drugs

The cigarette smoking age is 18 years. Smoking is now banned in all public places (stations, museums, etc.); an exception exists for special smoking rooms fulfilling drastic conditions, see beloPopular French cigarette brands include Gauloises and Marlboro.
 Sports and hobbiesMain article: Sport in France
Football (French: Le Foot) is the most popular sport in France. Other popular sports played in France are rugby union, cycling, tennis, handball, basketball and sailing. France is notable for holding and winning the FIFA World Cup in 1998, and holding the annual cycling race Tour de France, and the tennis Grand Slam tournament the French Open.
The modern Olympics was invented in France, in 1894 by Pierre de Coubertin.ther important sports include:

• 24 Hours of Le Mans - The world's oldest sports car race.
• Skiing - France has an extensive number of ski resorts in the French alps such as Tignes. Ski resorts are also located in the Pyrénées and Vosges mountain chains.
• Pétanque - The international federation is recognized by the IOC.
• Fencing - Fencing leads the list of sports for which gold medals were won for France at the Summer Olympics (see: France at the Olympics).
• Parkour - Developed in France, Parkour is a training discipline with similarities to self-defense or martial arts.
• Babyfoot (table football) - A very popular pastime in bars and homes in France, and the French are the predominant winners of worldwide table football competitions.
• Ki

Fashion

Main article: French fashion

Along with Milan, London and New York, Paris is center of an important number of fashion shows. Some of the world's biggest fashion houses (ex: Chanel) have their headquarters in France.
France renewed its dominance of the high fashion (couture or haute couture) industry in the years 1860–1960 through the establishing of the great couturier houses, the fashion press (Vogue was founded in 1892; Elle was founded in 1945) and fashion shows. In the early twentieth century, the industry expanded through such Parisian fashion houses as the house of Chanel (which first came to prominence in 1925) and Balenciaga (founded by a Spaniard in 1937). In the post war year, fashion returned to prominence through Christian Dior's famous "new look" in 1947, and through the houses of Pierre Balmain and Hubert de Givenchy (opened in 1952). In the 1960s, "high fashion" came under criticism from France's youth culture while designers like Yves Saint Laurent broke with established high fashion norms by launching prêt-à-porter ("ready to wear") lines and expanding French fashion into mass manufacturing and marketing.^[28] Further innovations were carried out by Paco Rabanne and Pierre Cardin.

Pets

This section requires expansion. (February 2012)

In 2006, 52% of French households had at least one pet:^[29] In total, 9.7 million cats, 8.8 million dogs, 2.3 million rodents, 8 million birds, and 28 million fish were kept as pets in France during this year.

Media and art

Art and museums

Main article: French art           

The first paintings of France are those that are from prehistoric times, painted in the caves of Lascaux well over 10,000 years ago. The arts were already flourishing 1,200 years ago, at the time of Charlemagne, as can be seen in many hand made and hand illustrated books of that time.
Gothic art and architecture originated in France in the 12th century around Paris and then spread to all of Europe. In the 13th century, French craftsmen developed the stained glass painting technique and sophisticated illuminated manuscripts for private devotion in the new gothic style. The final phase of gothic architecture, known as Flamboyant, also began in France in the 15th century before spreading to the rest of Europe.
The 17th century was one of intense artistic achievements : French painting emerged with a distinct identity, moving from Baroque to Classicism. Famous classic painters of the 17th century in France are Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain. French architecture also proved influential with the Palace of Versailles, built for the powerful king Louis XIV, becoming the model of many European royal palaces. During the 18th century the Rococo style emerged as a frivolous continuation of the Baroque style. The most famous painters of the era were Antoine Watteau, François Boucher and Jean-Honoré Fragonard. At the end of the century, Jacques-Louis David and Dominique Ingres were the most influential painters of the Neoclassicism
The Louvre in Paris is one of the most famous and the largest art museums in the world, created by the new revolutionary regime in 1793 in the former royal palace. It holds a vast amount of art of French and other artists, e.g. the Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, and classical Greek Venus de Milo and ancient works of culture and art from Egypt and the Middle East.

Music

Main article: Music of France

. In the field of classical music, France has produced a number of notable composers such as Gabriel Fauré, Claude Debussy, and Hector Berlioz while modern pop music has seen the rise of popular French hip hop, French rock, techno/funk, and turntablists/djs.

Theater

Main article: Theater of France

CinemaMain article: Cinema of France

France is the birthplace of cinema and was responsible for many of its early significant contributions:^[30] Antoine Lumière realized, on 28 December 1895, the first projection, with the Cinematograph, in Paris.^[31] Philippe Binant realized, on 2 February 2000, the first digital cinema projection in Europe, with the DLP CINEMA technology developed by Texas Instruments, in Paris.^[32] Several important cinematic movements, including the Nouvelle Vague, began in the country.

Television

Main article: Television in France

Books, newspapers and magazines

Main articles: French media and French literature

France has the reputation of being a "literary culture",^[34] and this image is reinforced by such things as the importance of French literature in the French educational system, the attention paid by the French media to French book fairs and book prizes .

                             Architecture

                                                

Transportation

                        

Main article: Transport in FranceThere are significant differences in lifestyles with respect to transportation between very urbanized regions such as Paris], and smaller towns and rural areas. In Paris, and to a lesser extent in other major cities, many households do not own an automobile and simply use efficient public transport. The cliché about the Parisien is rush hour in the Métro subway.

Holidays

Main article: Public holidays in France

Despite the principles of laïcité and the separation of church from state, public and school holidays in France generally follow the Roman Catholic religious calendar (including Easter, Christmas, Ascension Day, Pentecost, Assumption of Mary, All Saints Day, etc

 

Singapore Food Culture

"You think about lunch at breakfast, plan for dinner at lunch and fall asleep counting lamb chops." - Teo Pau Lin, Inside Track, 9 August 2005

Singapore Food Culture

"You think about lunch at breakfast, plan for dinner at lunch and fall asleep counting lamb chops." - Teo Pau Lin, Inside Track, 9 August 2005

For Starters

Food is undoubtedly an important aspect in Singapore. From the many hawker centres we have to the high-end restaurants, the Singaporean tastebud has definitely acquired the ability to source out good food wherever it is. We see this from long queues at more famous stalls and learn that many people are willing to travel across the island just to get the tau huay in Geylang, chai tao kuay in Ghim Moh or the wonderful dim sum at Red Star Restaurant located at Chin Swee Road.

Dim Sum

If it's anything in this multi-racial, multi-lingual, multi-religious society that we have come to notice, it is that we are the classic example of cultural diffusion. While the main aim of cultural diffusion stems from the want of capital gains, it has brought more colour and added variety to the Singapore landscape that all Singaporeans are far too familiar with. Some may say that our landscape lacks iconicity such that we ought to be known as Singabore rather than Singapore, but if we take a look at our food culture, we know that boring is really far from reality.

The Singaporean food culture speaks of a fusion of cultures from all over the world. From Malay food to Japanese cuisine, Western fast food joints to the typical Chinese restaurants, we have a good mix of delicaices to pick from. This array of choices is representative of cultural diffusion in the local context. Alongside globalization came the entry of different cultures into this small island so it comes as no surprise that in one way or another, we begin emulating certain cultures while ethnocentrism helps us in defining what cultures we do not want. And so, we have decided to take a deeper look at the local food culture and seek to understand why things are the way they are- things we do not usually try to comprehend on an ordinary basis.

Take for example the myth that dinner time is the meal of the day that we associate with socialising, and less so for all other meals. Also, we will take a look at why meal times are events that promote socialising more than other activities like going to the movies or shopping. Our choices of food also reflects our lifestyle and more insights will be given pertaining this issue as well. What we realised is that Singaporeans love their food and appreciate it despite not knowing the many reasons for why our culture is as such. This idea is linked to a sense of place. Subsequently, we will also be looking at hawker centres as a case study, as well as how media affects food culture. (Links are available in the sidebar under "Content".)

Rojak

-a mix of ingredients and representative of the Singapore food scene with a mix of foods from all cultures.

Singaporean Lifestyle

No one can deny the fact that eating is a significant part of Singaporean culture. Singaporeans do not eat simply for the sake of filling their stomachs; rather, it is a reflection of the Singaporean lifestyle. From a variety of hawker centers to fine dining, there is never a lack of places to go to for dinner in Singapore. No matter the reasons, be it whether the limited forms of entertainment available in Singapore, or the inborn love of food in every Singapore, eating is a part of every Singaporean’s lifestyle.

Images of Singapore Lifestyle

A big part of our lifestyle is reflected in our choices of places to eat dinner. For example, a person who has a more limited income, like students, would probably choose to eat in hawker centers or food courts, instead of choosing fine dining. On the other hand, someone who has more spending power and indulges in a more luxurious lifestyle may choose fine dining over eating in hawker centers. Another way that our choice of eating places reflects our lifestyle is illustrated by the fact that some people may choose fast food outlets due to their hectic schedules and lack of time to sit down and slowly enjoy a meal. In Singapore’s fast-paced society, fast food outlets here never suffer from a lack of business. Just like other habits in our lives and choices we make, the places people choose to dine at are also examples of how we choose to live our lives, and are indicative of our lifestyles. This said, some people might also choose to dine in certain places, to illustrate or attempt to show people their ‘lifestyles’. For example, a person who has just entered the workforce may not usually dine at fine restaurants, but when dining with his boss, or a client, may choose fine dining in order to show others that he has the means to dine there.

Not only the choice of eating-place is indicative of a person’s lifestyle; a person’s choice of eating partners also reflects his or her lifestyle. A person who is more family-oriented may choose to dine at home, or dine out with his family, in order to spend more time with his family. However, a more career-minded person would probably choose to dine with his business associates in order to build up his network of contacts, and so as to become more business savvy. This illustrates how a person’s choice of people that he dines with also reflects his lifestyles, values and mindset.

Eating Places in Singapore

Furthermore, a person’s choice of food is also representative of his lifestyle. Someone who is more afraid to try new things and would rather stick to what he knows would probably eat the same kinds of food, whereas someone who is more adventurous would not be afraid to try all different kinds of food and venture out from the more common types of food. This, once again, shows how someone’s lifestyle is reflected through the several choices he makes with regards to food.

Dinner Time Talk

Clarke Quay in the day

Clarke Quay at night

Students chat heartily over McDonald value meals as they get together after a day of school and extra activities. Just a stone’s throw away, clusters of people spill out of Pasta Mania and Thai Express in queues. One floor up, Crystal Jade Palace is filled with the tinkling of Chinese cutlery and conversation. And while a romantic candlelight dinner for two unfolds beautifully in a cosy Italian Restaurant nearby, families and friends dine casually but equally comfortably in food courts and hawker centres. Some simply enjoy warmth of a home-cooked spread. People from all walks of life gather for dinner more than just the rudimentary purpose of filling the stomach and relieving hunger - birthday celebrations, wedding banquets, class get-togethers, family gatherings, dates – the list can go on and on.

Students at Mos Burger

Socialisation among Singaporean’s is commonly observed over the most “important” meal of the day. The familiar saying that breakfast is the most essential meal to start the day is definitely a mere saying to us Singaporeans. For the majority, breakfast more often than not a “grab and go” affair. From my observation, most students who are fortunate enough to have a “grab” at this first meal of the day munch on bread in plastic bags on the way to school. This is nothing unusual to us. Even after half a day of labour, many choose to wolf down a Subway sandwich or some takeaway with eyes still glued to the monitor in that lonely office cubicle. Speaking of rushed meals, I remember having my recess food in just 20 minutes before that good old bell went off again.

Being thought to be time-orientated multi-taskers, Singaporeans generally do not have the luxury of enjoying fellowship in socialising during meals. This could be why it seems that we place more emphasis on the last meal of the day. Well, at least the last for some. Dinner becomes a leisurely activity where people get together in various social groups. I look forward to dinner – less time constraint, more good food. From my mother’s kitchen to the most high-class restaurant in town, dinner seems to call for a wider spread. Also evident is the increased amount of effort that goes into the choice of cuisine for dinner. My personal view is that people feel temporarily relieved of their day’s dose of stress and many look on dinner as a kind of deserved reward for a day of hard work. Eating in itself can serve as a very relaxing, stress-relieving activity. Dinner, being at the end of the day is all the more a pleasurable moment to savour.

A family enjoying dinner at night in Chinatown

For these very reasons I guess, dinner becomes a social tool in our society. We often receive invitations to grand Chinese dinners at restaurants where couples celebrate marriage. Occasionally, we attend class gatherings with BBQ on a cool breezy evening at East Coast. Chinese families coming together for a scrumptious reunion dinner is a yearly affair. And of course, we certainly love the indulgence of buffets together – the more the merrier. Just pause a second now to think about the last time you found yourself having a BBQ or reunion dinner in solitary. It is highly unlikely that a recollection as such even exists. And even if it does, it wasn’t exactly much fun was it?

What's With That Shape?

Circles and rectangles- are they just shapes that we learnt in our kindergartner years or something more significant?

Sure, we Singaporeans think that we know our food and are proud of our eating culture, but what exactly helped form this eating culture that we so often indulge ourselves in? While we always talk about the variety of food that we can boast of and the culinary skills of many chefs, we have neglected an important part of our food culture- the structure of our eating places.

Dining places in Singapore have a common feature that all Singaporeans take for granted because of their abundance- the tables. Round or square, they easily seat four to ten persons during a single mealtime. To us, there may appear to be nothing special about such a characteristic since most of us have been brought up in a time when all of these were already in existence. Only the older generation would have witnessed the transformation of Singapore’s eating places, from roadside hawkers to the many hawker centres and restaurants which provide comfortable seating. Gone are the days where people had to squat by the roadside in an unglamourous fashion slurping their ten cents’ worth of noodles.

Rectangular dining tables in Lau Par Sat

Round tables are in essence the key tool in most of our social gatherings. Round tables are more than just a piece of furniture with utilitarian value, but form much of what the Singaporean food culture is based on. This very feature allows people to sit in a way such that nobody is left out and everyone can participate in the conversation. The round table is a classic piece of furniture that allows a relatively large group of people to be seated together during any meal time. Under such a circumstance, it would be unlikely that anyone would be left out in a corner, as in the case of the more angular tables. We see these in many hawker centres and Chinese restaurants where the atmosphere is light and plenty of conversations are taking place amidst the clanging of utensils being washed and the occasional sounds of utensils dropping. Undoubtedly, the round table has served to encourage socialising rather than inhibit it.

Round tables in a typical Chinese restaurant

Still, I am not saying that square or rectangle tables inhibit the socialising process. Here in Singapore, we are more likely to find such tables in non-Asian restaurants. These also promote socialising, but on a smaller scale. Such tables are more intimate since they usually cater to two or four diners, as in the case of fine-dining restaurants for culinary experts, places for discussing business deals or a romantic candlelight dinner for two.
In contrast, our American counterparts have a very different dining experience. Many of their restaurants have bar counters where people can simply eat and leave. This is something that we can hardly find here. This serves to explain why dining out is not an event many Americans deem 'sociable'. Of course, we can also look at it that with the vast amount of space that the US has, travelling just to dine out would be far too troublesome and so they stay home and share their meals. Well, there are always exceptions, seeing how sitting in fornt of the television eating out of 'dinner boxes' has also become a common affair. It is now more explicit why we dine the way we do in Singapore. Our largely Asian culture sets in place the need to eat together so much so that we value the concept of eating together at the table and even take this culture along with us out of our homes and into dining places. The structure of our eating places continues to promote this common value that we all share.

Round tables in a hawker centre

We cannot deny that mealtimes here are a social affair. If all we had were bar counters then conversations would be few and far between. Judging by all the noise we generate through incessant chatter over meal times, it is far too obvious that discourses at the dining table are something that we cannot do without. This, with the exception of far too conservative families who believe that meal times should be just an eating affair to nourish the bodies and nothing more. Surely that belittles the significance of eating at the dining table, would it not?
I never thought that the structure of our dining places would actually help formulate the Singapore food culture this much until now. It is not something that we would take into consideration on an ordinary basis but rather something that has been taken for granted for a time too long.

Food, food, food

Food has always been used as a tool to define culture and identity, especially in defining characteristics of a country. This is especially true in the case of Singapore where the humble food has taken on iconic status and is rarely separated from the concept of national identity. This can be seen where praise for the high variety and versatility of food is often included in the assessment of the country itself. In this small nation of over 4 million people, food is a national passion as proven by the 20,000 eating establishments all over the county. Wherever one is, there is surely an eating place of some sort near them, showing just how pervasive dining has become.

What is Singapore food? This is food introduced by early immigrants to maintain an identity of their roots while in this foreign land. It has its origin in India, China, Malaysia and other countries in the region, leading detractors to claim that there is no such thing as Singapore food. They are only partially right because Singapore's cuisine is 'Singaporeanized', a fusion of the many cultures and races that have lived together on the island.

Being the food capital of Asia, Chinese, Indian, Malay, Indonesian and Western foods are all available. Indian Muslim food(so called Mamak food) is very popular, with roti prata, mee goreng, Indian rojak, nasi padang, mutton soup being some of the more popular dishes. Dishes from India, particularly northern India, are popular in Singapore, but the Tamil's (the Indian majority in Singapore) prefer the hot and spicy southern Indian cuisine, with its saffron rice.
Malay cuisine is a blend of traditional dishes from Malaysia with strong influences from the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java. Coconut and Belacan is an essential ingredient when cooking these dishes. Malay dishes, use a variety of spices such as the kaffir, lime leaf and lemon grass, shallots and garlic, ginger and galangal to give it its characteristically piquant, spicy flavor. Some of the favorite Malay dishes among Singaporeans are Satay, Beef Rendang. and Soto Ayam. For religious reasons, pork is never used in Malay cuisine.

Roti Prata

Chinese food itself can be subdivided into those from the different dialect groups, namely Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew, Hainan and Hokien dishes. Famous dishes like Dim Sum, Cantonese porridge (sometimes called congee) and Wanton soup originate from Cantonese cooking. The Hakkas are famous for their Yong Tao Foo (stuffed tofu). Originally filled with minced pork flavoured with salted fish, the hawker version consists of a variety of boiled vegetable filled with fish paste that comes either with various sauces or as a soup. Through this dish, their values of thriftiness and diligence are reflected, showcasing part of their identity. The Teochews are famous for their fish ball noodles(especially Mee Pok - flat egg noodles), porridge and steamed dishes. Next, there is the well-known Hainanese Chicken rice, whose popularity easily earns it the status of an unofficial national dish. The Hokkiens who make up the largest Chinese ethnic group in Singapore offer dishes like Oyster omelette, Char Kway teow and Hokkien Mee.

Chicken Rice

The culture of Singapore food expresses a rich mixture of diversity as various ethnic groups continue to celebrate their own cultures while intermingling with one another. It is common to see Malay stalls selling halal food also serving halal versions of traditional Tamil food. Chinese stalls sometimes also introduce Malay ingredients, cooking techniques or entire dishes into their range of catering. Nonya cooking is a famous example of the local variation on Chinese and Malay food, mixing Chinese ingredients with local spices such as lemon grass and coconut cream. The popular spicy, coconut-based soup laksa is a classic Nonya example. Western dishes like chicken cutlet and fish and chips have also adopted an asian fusion with stalls sometimes serving it with rice rather than potatoes Seafood is another popular and social food that embraces the food culture of diversity. Chili crabs, black pepper crabs, drunken prawns, and curry fish head cooked using the famous sambal chili of the Malays, the curry of the Indians along with spices of the Chinese are enjoyed by all. Eating barbequed sting ray from a piece of banana leaf is also no longer just malay culture, it is an intricate part of Singaporean seafood culture. This continues to make the cuisine of Singapore significantly rich and a cultural attraction.

Laksa

This rich diversity of food has become such an integral part of Singaporean culture that there is no longer any conscious segregation of it under different racial or dialect groups. Due to a history of interracial and inter-class mingling, most citizens have already embraced these differences under Singaporean food as a whole. Meals are planned not according to racial distinctions but according to the taste and preference of the day. It is so common for people to eat food outside of their racial or dialect group that no one even bats an eyelid. It is also not surprising if one has taken food from all the different races within a day.

 

2. ROSA AULIA (12 23 127)

Malaysian Culture

Facts and Statistics

Location: Southeastern Asia. Shares borders with Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei.

Capital: Kuala Lumpur

Climate: tropical; annual southwest (April to October) and northeast (October to February) monsoons

Population: 24,821,286 (July 2007 est.)

Ethnic Make-up: Malay 50.4%, Chinese 23.7%, indigenous 11%, Indian 7.1%, others 7.8%

Religions:Muslim 60.4%, Buddhist 19.2%, Christian 9.1%, Hindu 6.3%, Confucianism, Taoism, other traditional Chinese religions 2.6%, other or unknown 1.5%, none 0.8%

Government: constitutional monarchy

Language in Malaysia

The Malay language is an Austronesian language spoken not only by Malaysians but all Malay people who reside in the Malay Peninsula, southern Thailand, the Philippines, Singapore, central eastern Sumatra, the Riau islands, parts of the coast of Borneo, Cocos and Christmas Islands in Australia. It is also very similar to Indonesian, known locally as Bahasa Indonesia.In Malaysia, the language is officially known as Bahasa Malaysia, which translates as the "Malaysian language". The term, which was introduced by the National Language Act 1967, was predominant until the 1990s, when most academics and government officials reverted to "Bahasa Melayu," which is used in the Malay version of the Federal Constitution.

Malay Culture and Society

A Multi-Cultural Society

Malaysia is a multi-cultural society. The main ethnic groups are the native Malays as well as large populations of Chinese, and Indians. When visiting the country it is clear that the ethnicities retain their religions, customs and way of life. The most important festivals of each group are public holidays.

Although growing up, children are educated in the same schools and will eventually work in the same offices, few marry outside their own ethnicity. Families tend to socialise within their own ethnic group – all part of retaining their individual traditions and lifestyles.

Despite the ethnic differences there are commonalities culturally speaking.

Group Orientation

The family is considered the centre of the social structure. As a result there is a great emphasis on unity, loyalty and respect for the elderly. The family is the place where the individual can be guaranteed both emotional and financial support. When one member of the family suffers a financial setback, the rest of the family will contribute what they can to help out. Families tend to be extended, although in the larger cities this will naturally differ.

The Concept of Face

Malays, Chinese and Indians all strive to maintain face and avoid shame both in public and private. Face is a personal concept that embraces qualities such as a good name, good character, and being held in esteem by one's peers. Face is considered a commodity that can be given, lost, taken away, or earned. On top of this face also extends to the family, school, company, and even the nation itself.

The desire to maintain face makes Malaysians strive for harmonious relationships.

Face can be lost by openly criticizing, insulting, or putting someone on the spot; doing something that brings shame to the group; challenging someone in authority, especially if this is done in public; showing anger at another person; refusing a request; not keeping a promise; or disagreeing with someone publicly. Conversely, face can be saved by remaining calm and courteous; discussing errors or transgressions in private; speaking about problems without blaming anyone; using non-verbal communication to say "no"; and allowing the other person to get out of the situation with their pride intact.

Etiquette and Customs in Malaysia

Meeting and Greeting

Greetings in a social context will depend upon the ethnicity of the person you are meeting. In general, most Malays are aware of Western ways so the handshake is normal. There may be slight differences though and a few things to bear in mind include:

• Malay women may not shake hands with men. Women can of course shake hands with women. Men may also not shake hands with women and may bow instead while placing their hand on their heart.• The Chinese handshake is light and may be rather prolonged. Men and women may shake hands, although the woman must extend her hand first. Many older Chinese lower their eyes during the greeting as a sign of respect.

• Indians shake hands with members of the same sex. When being introduced to someone of the opposite sex, nodding the head and smiling is usually sufficient.

Among all cultures, there is a general tendency to introduce:

• the most important person to the lower ranking person.

• the older person to the younger person.• women to men.

Names

The way names are used also varies between ethnicities:

Chinese

• The Chinese traditionally have 3 names. The surname (family name) is first and is followed by two personal names.• Many Chinese adopt more Western names and may ask you to use that instead.

Malays

• Many Malays do not have surnames. Instead, men add their father's name to their own name with the term "bin" (meaning ‘son of’). So Rosli bin Suleiman, would be Rosli the son of Suleiman. • Women use the term "binti", so Aysha bint Suleiman is Aysha the daughter of Suleiman.

Indian

• Many Indians do not use surnames. Instead, they place the initial of their father's name in front of their own name. The man's formal name is their name "s/o" (son of) and the father's name. • Women use "d/o" to refer to themselves as the daughter of their father.

Gift Giving Etiquette

Here are some general gift giving etiquette guidelines:

Gift giving to Malays:

• If invited to someone's home for dinner, bring the hostess pastries or good quality chocolates.• Never give alcohol.• Do not give toy dogs or pigs to children.• Do not give anything made of pigskin.• Avoid white wrapping paper as it symbolizes death and mourning.• Avoid yellow wrapping paper, as it is the color of royalty.• If you give food, it must be “halal” (meaning permissible for Muslims).• Offer gifts with the right hand only or both hands if the item is large.• Gifts are generally not opened when received.

Gift giving to Chinese:

• If invited to someone's home, bring a small gift of fruit, sweets, or cakes, saying that it is for the children.• A gift is traditionally refused before it is accepted to demonstrate that the recipient is not greedy.• Do not give scissors, knives or other cutting utensils as they indicate a desire to sever the relationship.• Flowers do not make good gifts as they are given to the sick and are used at funerals.• Do not wrap gifts in mourning colours - white, blue, or black.• Wrap the gifts in happy colours - red, pink, or yellow.• Elaborate gift - wrapping is imperative.• Never wrap a gift for a baby or decorate the gift in any way with a stork, as birds are the harbinger of death.• It is best to give gifts in even numbers since odd numbers are unlucky.• Gifts are generally not opened when received.

Gift giving to Indians:

• If you give flowers, avoid frangipani as they are used in funeral wreaths.• Money should be given in odd numbers.• Offer gifts with the right hand only or both hands if the item is large.• Do not wrap gifts in white or black.• Wrap gifts in red, yellow or green paper or other bright colors as these bring good fortune.• Do not give leather products to a Hindu.• Do not give alcohol unless you are certain the recipient drinks.• Gifts are generally not opened when received.

LAMPUNG CULTURE

Tapis Lampung

Fabric filter is one type of traditional crafts people of Lampung in aligning the good life to its environment as well as the Creator of the Universe. Therefore, the emergence of filter fabric is taken through the stages that lead to the perfection of time weaving techniques, as well as ways of providing decoration in accordance with the cultural development of society.

Understanding Tapis Lampung

Fabric filter is a women's clothing in the form of interest Lampung sarongs made of woven cotton yarn with decorative motifs or toothpick materials, yarns with silver or gold thread embroidery system (Lampung; "Cucuk").

Thus is the Tapis Lampung is the result of cotton yarn woven with motifs, silver or gold thread and a distinctive tribal clothing Lampung. This type of weaving is usually used on the waist downwards shaped sheath made of cotton yarn with natural motifs such as motifs, flora and fauna are embroidered with gold thread and silver thread.

Tapis Lampung including traditional kerajian because the equipment used in making the basic fabric and motives hiasnya still simple and done by the craftsmen. This craft is made by women, both housewives and girls (muli-muli), which was originally to fill the leisure time in order to meet the demands of the customs that are considered sacred. Tapestry fabrics currently produced by craftsmen with decorative diverse as commodities that have high economic value.

Type Tapis Lampung wearer by Origin

Some types of fabric Tapis is commonly used by the people of Lampung and Lampung Pepadun Saibatin are:

1. Tapis Lampung from Pesisir

·         Tapis Inuh

·         Tapis Cucuk Andak

·         Tapis Semaka

·         Tapis Kuning

·         Tapis Cukkil

·         Tapis Jinggu

2. Tapis lampung from Pubian Telu Suku

·         Tapis Jung Sarat

·         Tapis Balak

·         Tapis Laut Linau

·         Tapis Raja Medal

·         Tapis Pucuk Rebung

·         Tapis Cucuk Handak

·         Tapis Tuho

·         Tapis Sasap

·         Tapis Lawok Silung

·         Tapis Lawok Handak

3. Tapis Lampung from Sungkai Way Kanan

·         Tapis Jung Sarat

·         Tapis Balak

·         Tapis Pucuk Rebung

·         Tapis Halom/Gabo

·         Tapis Kaca

·         Tapis Kuning

·         Tapis Lawok Halom

·         Tapis Tuha

·         Tapis Raja Medal

·         Tapis Lawok Silung

4. Tapis Lampung from Tulang Bawang Mego Pak

·         Tapis Dewosano

·         Tapis Limar Sekebar

·         Tapis Ratu Tulang Bawang

·         Tapis Bintang Perak

·         Tapis Limar Tunggal

·         Tapis Sasab

·         Tapis Kilap Turki

·         Tapis Jung Sarat

·         Tapis Kaco Mato di Lem

·         Tapis Kibang

·         Tapis Cukkil

·         Tapis Cucuk Sutero

5. Tapis Lampung from Abung Siwo Mego

·         Tapis Rajo Tunggal

·         Tapis Lawet Andak

·         Tapis Lawet Silung

·         Tapis Lawet Linau

·         Tapis Jung Sarat

·         Tapis Raja Medal

6. Tapis Nyelem from Laut Timbul di Gunung

·         Tapis Cucuk Andak

·         Tapis Balak

·         Tapis Pucuk Rebung

·         Tapis Cucuk Semako

·         Tapis Tuho

·         Tapis Cucuk Agheng

·         Tapis Gajah Mekhem

·         Tapis Sasap

·         Tapis Kuning

·         Tapis Kaco

·         Tapis Serdadu Baris


3. WAHYU SURYANTI

AMERICAN CULTURE

Language

There is no official language of the United States, although 31 of 50 states have made English their official language or given it exceptional status. More than 90 percent of the U.S. population speaks and understands at least some English, and most official business is conducted in English.

While almost every language in the world is spoken in the United States, Spanish, Chinese, French and German are among the most frequently spoken non-English languages. Each region of the United States, in particular the South, has its own spin on the language with unique pronunciations and phrases.

Religion

Nearly every known religion is practiced in the United States, which was founded on the basis of religious freedom. More than 75 percent of Americans identify themselves as Christians. About half are Protestant, about one-quarter are Catholic, and a small percentage are Mormon. After Christianity, Judaism is the second most-identified religious affiliation, at about 1.4 percent of the population. About 20 percent of the population has no religious affiliation.

American style

Clothing styles vary by region and climate, but the American style of dressing is predominantly casual. Denim, sneakers and cowboy hats and boots are some items of clothing that are closely associated with Americans. Ralph Lauren, Calvin Klein, Michael Kors and Victoria Secret are some well-known American brands. American fashion is widely influenced by celebrities.

American food

American cuisine has been influenced by Europeans and Native Americans in its early history. Today, there are a number of foods that are commonly identified as American, such as hamburgers, hot dogs, potato chips, macaroni and cheese and meat loaf. "As American as apple pie" has come to mean something that is authentically American.

There are also styles of cooking and types of foods that are specific to a region. Southern-style cooking is often called American comfort food and includes dishes such as fried chicken, collard greens, black-eyed peas and corn bread. Tex-Mex, popular in Texas and the Southwest, is a blend of Spanish and Mexican cooking styles and includes items such as chili and burritos and relies heavily on shredded cheese and beans.

Arts

The United States is widely known around the world as a leader in mass media production, including television and movies. The television broadcasting industry took hold in the United States in the early 1950s and American television programs are shown around the world. The United States also has a vibrant movie industry, centered in Hollywood, and American movies are popular worldwide.

New York is home to Broadway and Americans have a rich theatrical history.

American folk art is an artistic style and is identified with quilts and other hand-crafted items.

American music is very diverse with many, many styles, including rhythm and blues, jazz, gospel, country and western, bluegrass, rock 'n' roll and hip hop.

Sports

The United States is a sports-minded country, with millions of fans who follow football, baseball, basketball and hockey, among other sports. The game of baseball, which was developed in colonial America and became an organized sport in the mid-1800s, is known as America’s favorite pastime, although its popularity has been eclipsed by football.

American holidays

Americans celebrate their independence from Britain on July 4. Memorial Day, celebrated on the last Monday in May, honors those who have died in military service. Labor Day, observed on the first Monday in September, celebrates country’s workforce. Thanksgiving, another distinctive American holiday, falls on the fourth Thursday in November and dates back to colonial times to celebrate the harvest. Presidents’ Day, marking the birthdays of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln, is a federal holiday that occurs on the third Monday in February. The contributions of veterans are honored on Veterans’ Day, observed on Nov. 11. The contributions of civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. are remembered on the third Monday in January.

THE JAVANESE

The area of Java is very vast covering central and east Java island. In ancient time Mataram kingdom which are now the the special district of Yogyakarta and Solo in Central Java were the center of their culture. In 1755 the kingdom was splited into 2, one is the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, and one other is Kasunanan of Surakarta ( both are Islamic kingdoms ). Javanese speak complex dialect which introduces social status. In general the dialect is divided into two levels that are "Ngoko" dialect which is spoken among known partners, and "Krama" dialect which is spoken among those who are not known each other and for those whose social status is considered higher. Both Ngoko and Krama have more further variations, when it was spoken for palace member, higher status level, or more senior people, or for lower level, etc. Java land is the most densely populated in Indonesia. Many big cities are still developing such as Yogyakarta, Semarang, Solo, Surabaya, Blitar, and Malang. While dozens of medium to small cities still heavy with population. So the welfare of the people is still a tremendous big works. Still a large part of the population working on the land cultivating rice, cassava ( marlihot utilissima Phl), corn (zea mays L), yam (ipomea batatas poir ), Kacang ( vigna sinencis), gude (cjamis cajan), soya ( glycine soya Bth ), bean (arachis hypogen L), etc. Some people work in government offices, private companies, trades and especially near the beaches as fishermen. Personal ownership of land in Java is the same as other areas in Indonesia. The ownership is transferred down from generation to generation, divided among the heirs. That is why in Java most family has a small land for farming. Kinship system in Java is almost the same as in Bali, that is forbidden to marry between brother and sister, nephew, and children among brothers and sisters, and marry older woman. There are many ways a man and a woman come to their marriage status. First the family of the man come to the family of the woman to request their daughter, and this is the normal procedure. Second is when a man after dedicated himself to the parent of the woman, than is given as a present to marry their daughter. Third is the present from royal family. Fourth is the family of the woman come to the family of man to request. Fifth is when a marriage is arranged by both parents, in this case the marriage will be an imperative and forced by both parents. This way is become very rare and might be disappear in the future. Divorce in some reasons is accepted due to the absence of child, inability of husband to give welfare to the wife, and other reasonable causes. In Javanese society there is class considered high status such as "bandara-bandara" consist of royal family lineage, and the "priyayi" the government workers and learnt persons. In contrast to above 2 groups is a class called "wong cilik" means small people, those are the common people which is mostly poor. Based on religious characteristics there are "Santri" and "Kejawen" Santri is Moslem that is very obedience with Islamic rules, while Kejawen is Moslem but they are not praying nor have the idea to go for a haj to Mecca. Organizationally, the smaller unit of administration is called Desa or Kelurahan with head called "Lurah" Once again the understanding of Desa in Java contains much different affairs compared those a Desa in Bali. A Desa in Java is an administrative area as a bridge between Indonesian government with local organization. Islam has been is the majority religion in Java, not question about that as at every corner of the land we can see mosques. Not all Javanese practice religious rituals according to the Islamic doctrines. As already mentioned there are "Kejawen", and also many people are Christian, Hindu, Buddhist, and others. The Moslem-Kejawen believe that there is an omni-power incomparable wherever and whenever it does.. This supreme power is called "Kesakten" Below kesakten there are ancestor's spirits, good and evil spirits which can affect human life. In conjunction with this power and spirits they make an offering and a feast for the blessing ceremony. Those rituals such as: Life circle rites including many ritual after death. Basically there are ritual from Pregnancy - Birth - Life - Death - After Death. Various ritual for the Desa, Rice field, and Land cultivation, Various ritual for the Moslem holidays, Ritual for special event such as opening new house, diseases, long journey etc. During the ritual they make an offering and is dedicated to supreme power and the lower invisible beings. Even, after death they have ceremonies after 3, 7, 40, 100, and 1000 days. In their ritualistic tradition it is very clear that influence of Hindu is still very strong observing from the names they use, and some specific beliefs which arises such as (1) a belief of good and evil spirits, (2) a belief mixed between Moslem and Hindu, (3) a belief showing Hindu characters, (4) a belief in mystic. They are all in search of human welfare. Various tourism interests are spreaded over Java from western tip to eastern tip of the island. Lately the security concern is arises due to the economic crisis of the country which is not last yet.

4. YESY FRANICA (12 23 022)

Korean Culture

Korean culture is very interesting and full of wonderful traditions. It is a magical place where you find both perfect peace and harmony, but unfortunately wars and tragedies as well. Korean culture rarely falls short of amazing. Use the table below to quickly jump to the section you are interested in.

Geography

Korea is a small penninsula on the far East side of Asia. It is between China and Japan. It is connected to mainland Asia in the North. It is separated from China and Russia by the Yalu River and the Tuman River. Between Korea and Japan is the East Sea. To the West between Korea and China is the Yellow Sea. The size of Korea is roughly 1,000 kilometers in length.

Korea is a divided country. At the End of World War II in 1948, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel. This resulted in North Korea and South Korea. North Korea became communist, while South Korea did not. (This was based on the deal at the end of the War, dividing the country in two just as Germany had been). North Korea is also known as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, and South Korea is also known as the Republic of Korea. South Korea, or the Republic of North Korea is slightly larger in physical size, while South Korea's population size is about twice as large as North Korea's population size. The fact that this division occurred has left both North and South Korea on the bridge of war.

Language

The Korean language is shared between both North and South Korea and is part of the Altaic language family. There are various dialects but the language is generally understood everywhere. 65 million people speak the Language, with 45 million speaking it in South Korea. The language is considered one of the best and most well planned languages in history. Hangul is the Korean name of the language. The alphabet was created by King Sejong in 1446. The alphabet is extremely easy to learn, which gives Korea one of the highest literacy rates in the World.

I once heard this childrens story about the language.Story of the Language

You can also read up - in more detail, about the history of the language below.Hangul on Wikipedia

Many Koreans also study English. It is taught from very early on in school. Many signs will be in both Korean and English. If you visit Korea, do not be worried if you do not know much of the language. You will learn what you need quickly and many Koreans will be able to speak some English.

Major Cities

Seoul is the capital and most important city of South Korea. It is very city-like and could be compared to New York City. There is plenty to do there, especially at night. Shopping stands are open during the night and it isn't a quiet place at night either! There is always something to do anytime of the day.

There are also five other major cities; Pusan, Inchon, Kwangju, Taejon, and Taegu. Seoul is a highly populated city with 11 million people. Within a very small area near Seoul and surrounding cities, there is approximately 20 million people.

Traditional Korean Society

Although South Korea is modernizing extremely fast, it still holds on to many traditional values and the old way of life. Where there are not highly populated cities, there are rural area's which are still relatively poor, and still follow traditional ways of life. In cities, millions of people live in apartments, but in the rural area's you will find traditional housing. Also, even though the cities are headed toward very modern times, people still hold onto some traditional values. One thing that guarantee's this is the language. The language has traditional values of social status and respect built directly into it. Words change depending on who you are speaking with. This will keep traditional values always present.

Palembang Culture

The old history of Palembang and the entry of migrants from other regions, has made this city as a multi-cultural city. Had lost its function as a major port city's population was then adopted the culture of coastal Malays, and Javanese. Even now it can be seen in its culture. One of them is language. Words such as "mace (the door)", "pawpaw (banana)", is one example. Was knighted Javanese, such as Raden Mas / Ayu. The tombs of the Islamic heritage was not different in form and coraknya with Islamic tombs in Java.

Art is located in Palembang, among others:

• Art Dul Muluk (traditional drama performances Palembang)
• Dances like Gending Sriwijaya held a reception to the guests, and dance that was exhibited in Tanggai wedding reception
• Regional Songs such as "Dek Sangke, Cuk Mak Ilang" , Batanghari Sambilan and Ribang Kemambang
• Traditional House of Palembang is Limas House and House Raft

Ornamental boat festival and competition

l

In The River Musi Bidar. Palembang is also always held a variety of festivals every year, among others "Sriwijaya Festival" every month of June in order to commemorate Palembang Day, Bidar and Boat Festival celebrates Independence Day Ornamental, and various festivals commemorating the Hijri New Year, Month of Ramadan, and New Year's Day .
Population Of Palembang, South Sumatra - Indonesia

Palembang residents are ethnic Malays, and use language Malays who have adapted to the local dialect now known as the language of Palembang. However, migrants often use regional languages as the language of everyday life, such as language komering, Sekayu, Rawas, Musi and Lahat. Immigrants from outside the South Sumatra sometimes regional languages as well as using everyday language in family or regional community. However, to communicate with Another resident of Palembang, Palembang residents generally use the language as the language of instuction daily in addition of the native

, 

in Palembang there are also residents and citizens of immigrant descent, such as from Javanese, Minangkabau, Madurese, Bugis and Banjar. Residents of offspring many live in Palembang is Tionghoa, Arabic and Indian. Palembang city has several Areas that became the hallmark of a kampung Kapitan community like that is the area of Community Al Munawwar, Kampung China, and that is an Area and Community.

Palembang is the majority religion in Islam. There were also adherents of Catholicism, Protestantism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. 

5.  TRY SITI SARAH HATI 

LA TOMATINA

La Tomatina is a food fight event in the festival city of Bunol in the Valencia region is held once a year on Wednesday at the end of August . The festival is held in the last week of August has been held since 1944. Hundreds of people came from all over the world come to participate in fights using tomatoes that are too ripe .

La Tomatina is part of a week-long festival filled with music performances , parades , dances , and fireworks display . Overnight before Tomatina , participants will compete in a paella cooking contest ( traditional Spanish dish consisting of rice , fish , tomatoes , and vegetables )

It is estimated that tourists who come to this event reaches 20,000-40,000 people . Bunol population exceeds that amount to 9,000 . Due to limited accommodation , eventually the tourists generally stay in the city of Valencia and take the bus or train to go to Bunol , which is located 38 km from Valencia . In preparation , the owner of the shop and the house will use a large plastic coating the front of their buildings so protected .

Bunol town festival intended as a tribute to Santa Luis Bertran and the Virgin Mary . Tomatina has become a tradition in Bunol since 1944. Nobody knows exactly how this tradition began . Version developed in the community say that tomatina war began when local food is done by the youth . There are also saying that this tradition began when residents pelted with tomatoes mayor in a celebration . Whatever is behind it , toss it felt good tomatoes that were repeated the following year , then next year again to now become a tradition .

TEDAK SINTEN

Tedak Siten or Turun Tanah is a traditional Javanese ceremony performed by a married couple for their first child. This unique ceremony is held when the baby reaches the age of "tujuh lapan" (7 x 38 days), alternately, when a baby learns how to walk. The meaning of this special ceremony is to introduce a child for the first time to the land (or soil) in the hope that the child will be able to stand independently through life's low and high notes. First, the child's parents perform "sungkem" — asking for blessing by positioning their hands in front of their chests and bowing their heads to their grandparents' or (an elderly's) thigh. They will pray for the Almighty's protection of parents and child.

A baby boy inside the cage

Secondly, the parents will walk the child to step on sticky rice of seven colors including white, red, blue, yellow, purple, black and orange. The colors symbolize the child's ability to face life's various challenges. Thirdly, the parents will accompany the child to climb on steps made from maroon sugar cane so that the child will have "anteping kalbu" — a strong heart to pursue their dreams and persevere. Next, the child is placed inside a bamboo chicken cage along with different objects such as a miniature car, a ball, a musical instrument (for a boy), cooking utensils, stethoscope and jewelry (for a girl) as well as money, books and writing implements (for both). When the child grabs one of the objects inside the cage, this signals the choice of profession the child will most likely assume. The meaning behind the chicken cage is that the child will be an integral part of society and will adhere to its rules.

Bathing ritual

Following this, the child is then bathed in a brass basin with jasmine and rose, symbolizing the child's spreading of goodfragrance, and that parents and child will live in dignity. Afterwards both parents will cut the tumpeng (a special rice with various dishes), wishing for the child to always be blessed by the Almighty. As a final step, the parents will throw empon empon or yellow rice with coins at the guests present, symbolizing their generosity in sharing their good fortune with others.

The child steps on sticky rice of seven colors



6.  OKTARINA (12 23 080)

Culture of indonesia

Indonesian children dressed in various traditional costumes.

. The culture of Indonesia has been shaped by long interaction between original indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. Indonesia is centrally-located along ancient trading routes between the Far East, South Asia and the Middle East, resulting in many cultural practices being strongly influenced by a multitude of religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam and Christianity, all strong in the major trading cities. The result is a complex cultural mixture very different from the original indigenous cultures. Examples of cultural fusion include the fusion of Islam with Hindu in Javanese Abangan belief, the fusion of Hinduism, Buddhism and animism in Bodha, and the fusion of Hinduism and animism in Kaharingan; others could be cited. Balinese dances have stories about ancient Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms, while Islamic art forms and architecture are present in Sumatra, especially in the Minangkabau and Aceh regions. Traditional art, music and sport are combined in a martial art form called Pencak Silat. Western culture has greatly influenced Indonesia in science, technology and modern entertainment such as television shows, film and music, as well as political system and issues. India has notably influenced Indonesian songs and movies. A popular type of song is the Indian-rhythmical dangdut, which is often mixed with Arab and Malay folk music. Despite the influences of foreign culture, some remote Indonesian regions still preserve uniquely indigenous culture. Indigenous ethnic groups Mentawai, Asmat, Dani, Dayak, Toraja and many others are still practicing their ethnic rituals, customs and wearing traditional clothes.

, Toraja Culture and Ancient Tradition

Culture and Ancient tradition
Toraja's indigenous belief system is polytheistic animism, called Aluk, or "the way" (sometimes translated as "the law"). In the Toraja myth, the ancestors of Torajan people came down from heaven using stairs, which were then used by the Torajans as a communication medium with Puang Matua, the Creator. The cosmos, according to Aluk, is divided into the upper world (heaven), the world of man (earth), and the underworld. At first, heaven and earth were married, then there was a darkness, a separation, and finally the light. Animals live in the underworld, which is represented by rectangular space enclosed by pillars, the earth is for mankind, and the heaven world is located above, covered with a saddle-shaped roof. Other Toraja Gods include Pong Banggai di Rante (god of Earth), Indo' Ongon-Ongon (a goddess who can cause earthquakes), Pong Lalondong (god of death), and Indo' Belo Tumbang (goddess of medicine); there are many more.

The earthly authority, whose words and actions should be cleaved to both in life (agriculture) and death (funerals), is called To Minaa (an aluk priest). Aluk is not just a belief system; it is a combination of law, religion, and habit. Aluk governs social life, agricultural practices, and ancestral rituals. The details of aluk may vary from one village to another. One common law is the requirement that death and life rituals be separated. Torajans believe that performing death rituals might ruin their corpses if combined with life rituals. The two rituals are equally important. During the time of the Dutch missionaries, Christian Torajans were prohibited from attending or performing life rituals, but were allowed to perform death rituals. Consequently, Toraja's death rituals are still practiced today, while life rituals have diminished.

Toraja people enjoy great longevity-surely something to do with the cool climate and active lifestyle from infancy to old age. They spend their lives growing excellent fragrant rice, raising magnificent buffalo, especially the highly valued pink albino strains. Their work is interspersed with dramatic ceremonies. Harvest festivals and house warming festivals, are times for feasting and a gathering of the clan, times to wear their best costumes and jewellery, bring out the tuak (a local brew) and party for days on end, times for singing and dancing and, of course, eating. These are also times for neighbours and clan members to pay their respects and to pay back obligations that may date back generations.

Family affiliation
Family is the primary social and political grouping in Torajan society. Each village is one extended family, the seat of which is the Tongkonan, a traditional Torajan house. Each Tongkonan has a name, which becomes the name of the village. The familial dons maintain village unity. Marriage between distant cousins (fourth cousins and beyond) is a common practice that strengthens kinship. Toraja society prohibits marriage between close cousins (up to and including the third cousin)-except for nobles, to prevent the dispersal of property. Kinship is actively reciprocal, meaning that the extended family helps each other farm, share buffalo rituals, and pay off debts.

Each person belongs to both the mother's and the father's families, the only bilateral family line in Indonesia. Children, therefore, inherit household affiliation from both mother and father, including land and even family debts. Children's names are given on the basis of kinship, and are usually chosen after dead relatives. Names of aunts, uncles and cousins are commonly referred to in the names of mothers, fathers and siblings.

Before the start of the formal administration of Toraja villages by the Tana Toraja Regency, each Toraja village was autonomous. In a more complex situation, in which one Toraja family could not handle their problems alone, several villages formed a group; sometimes, villages would unite against other villages. Relationship between families was expressed through blood, marriage, and shared ancestral houses (Tongkonan), practically signed by the exchange of buffalo and pigs on ritual occasions. Such exchanges not only built political and cultural ties between families but defined each person's place in a social hierarchy: who poured palm wine, who wrapped a corpse and prepared offerings, where each person could or could not sit, what dishes should be used or avoided, and even what piece of meat constituted one's share.

Class affiliation
In early Toraja society, family relationships were tied closely to social class. The structure of the caste of Torajan people according to Aluk are:

1. Tana Bulaan (Tana = caste, Bulaan = gold) Nobles never marry lower class people. Moreover, if someone divorces his/her spouse, then he/she has to pay 24 buffaloes to the divorced his/her spouse.
2.  Tana Bassi(Tana = caste, Bassi = iron) Lower than Tana Bulaan. A person has to pay 10 buffaloes to his/her divorced spouse.
3. Tana Karurung (common people) a person has to pay 2 buffaloes to his/her divorced spouse.
4. Tana Kuakua (slaves) there are still some people in certain areas having slaves to take care of their rice farm. The slaves are paid and given adequate food. In the past, slaves were not paid.

In general there were three strata: nobles, commoners, and slaves (slavery was abolished in 1909 by the Dutch East Indies government). Class was inherited through the mother. It was taboo, therefore, to marry "down" with a woman of lower class. On the other hand, marrying a woman of higher class could improve the status of the next generation. The nobility's condescending attitude toward the commoners is still maintained today for reasons of family prestige.

Nobles, who were believed to be direct descendants of the descended person from heaven, lived in Tongkonans, while commoners lived in less lavish houses (bamboo shacks called Banua). Slaves lived in small huts, which had to be built around their owner's Tongkonan. Commoners might marry anyone, but nobles preferred to marry in-family to maintain their status. Sometimes nobles married Bugis or Makassarese nobles. Commoners and slaves were prohibited from having death feasts. Despite close kinship and status inheritance, there was some social mobility, as marriage or change in wealth could affect an individuals status. Wealth was counted by the ownership of water buffaloes.

Slaves in Toraja society were family property. Sometimes Torajans decided to become slaves when they incurred a debt, pledging to work as payment. Slaves could be taken during wars, and slave trading was common. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still inherited slave status. Slaves were prohibited from wearing bronze or gold, carving their houses, eating from the same dishes as their owners, or having sex with free women-a crime punishable by death.

Dance and music
Torajans perform dances on several occasions, most often during their elaborate funeral ceremonies. They dance to express their grief, and to honor and even cheer the deceased person because he is going to have a long journey in the afterlife. First, a group of men form a circle and sing a monotonous chant throughout the night to honor the deceased (a ritual called Ma'badong). This is considered by many Torajans to be the most important component of the funeral ceremony. On the second funeral day, the Ma'randing warrior dance is performed to praise the courage of the deceased during life. Several men perform the dance with a sword, a large shield made from buffalo skin, a helmet with a buffalo horn, and other ornamentation. The Ma'randing dance precedes a procession in which the deceased is carried from a rice barn to the Rante, the site of the funeral ceremony. During the funeral, elder women perform the Ma'katia dance while singing a poetic song and wearing a long feathered costume. The Ma'akatia dance is performed to remind the audience of the generosity and loyalty of the deceased person. After the bloody ceremony of buffalo and pig slaughter, a group of boys and girls clap their hands while performing a cheerful dance called Ma'dondan.
As in other agricultural societies, Torajans dance and sing during harvest time. The Ma'bugi dance celebrates the thanksgiving event, and the Ma'gandangi dance is performed while Torajans are pounding rice. There are several war dances, such as the Manimbong dance performed by men, followed by the Ma'dandan dance performed by women. The Aluk religion governs when and how Torajans dance. A dance called Ma'bua can be performed only once every 12 years. Ma'bua is a major Toraja ceremony in which priests wear a buffalo head and dance around a sacred tree.

A traditional musical instrument of the Toraja is a bamboo flute called a Pa'suling (suling is an Indonesian word for flute). This six-holed flute (not unique to the Toraja) is played at many dances, such as the thanksgiving dance Ma'bondensan, where the flute accompanies a group of shirtless, dancing men with long fingernails. The Toraja have indigenous musical instruments, such as the Pa'pelle (made from palm leaves) and the Pa'karombi (the Torajan version of a Jew's harp). The Pa'pelle is played during harvest time and at house inauguration ceremonies.

Language
The ethnic Toraja language is dominant in Tana Toraja with the main language is the Sa'dan Toraja. Although the national Indonesian language is the official language and is spoken in the community, all elementary schools in Tana Toraja teach Toraja language.

Language varieties of Toraja, including Kalumpang, Mamasa, Tae' , Talondo' Toala' , and Toraja-Sa'dan, belong to the Malayo-Polynesian language from the Austronesian family. At the outset, the isolated geographical nature of Tana Toraja formed many dialects between the Toraja languages themselves. After the formal administration of Tana Toraja, some Toraja dialects have been influenced by other languages through the transmigration program, introduced since the colonialism period, and it has been a major factor in the linguistic variety of Toraja languages.

A prominent attribute of Toraja language is the notion of grief. The importance of death ceremony in Toraja culture has characterized their languages to express intricate degrees of grief and mourning. The Toraja language contains many terms referring sadness, longing, depression, and mental pain. It is a catharsis to give a clear notion about psychological and physical effect of loss, and sometimes to lessen the pain of grief itself.

Culture of foreign

Explain: Culture, Society, and Production in West Africa

In Activity One: Engage: What is West Africa?, we began talking about the rich cultural diversity of West Africa. People within this region speak hundreds of different languages, practice various religions, have many histories and traditions, and earn a living in a number of different ways. This Activity (Three) will emphasize the many ways of life in West Africa, as well as focus in on the case study of Cote d’Ivoire as a more in depth example of culture, society, and production.

What do we mean by “culture,” “society,” and “production”?
Take a moment to: 1) write down other words that come to mind when you hear each of these three words, and 2) try to come up with a one sentence definition for each of these three words.

1) CULTURE

a) What words come to mind when you hear the word “culture”?

b) Come up with your own definition of “culture” in one sentence:

2) SOCIETY

a) What words come to mind when you hear the word “society”?

b) Come up with your own definition of “society” in one sentence:

3) PRODUCTION

a) What words come to mind when you hear the word “production”?

b) Come up with your own definition of “production” in one sentence:

There is no one right answer to any of these questions. Everybody has a slightly different understanding of what is meant by each of these terms. For the purposes of this activity, we have chosen to group these three concepts together because they refer to people’s daily lives of work (production), beliefs and behavior patterns (culture), and relationships in communities (society). None of these are mutually exclusive—on the contrary, they are all very much interrelated.

What are some important aspects of culture, society, and production in West Africa?

1) Religion in West African Daily Life

West Africa, like most all regions of the world, is a place where many different religions are practiced. These range from well-known world religions like Islam and Christianity to religious traditions that few people outside of a particular West African region have heard of. In general, certain areas of West Africa have tended not to adopt Christianity and Islam, maintaining many of the religious beliefs and practices of their ancestors combined with new innovations. A few also practice world religions uncommon but present in the region, such as Baha’i, Jehovah’s Witnesses, or Buddhism. As is the case throughout the world, many have combined Christianity, Islam, or other world religions with local religious practices, which is sometimes called syncretism. Let’s take these one by one and see in more detail what religious diversity actually exists in West Africa.

Islam and Christianity
Often the distinction is made in Africa between Islam, Christianity, and “indigenous religions.” These categories can be problematic as they oversimplify the situation and tend to misrepresent what “indigenous religions” are. In many ways it does not make much sense to group every religious tradition that seems to have its roots in Africa into a single category called “indigenous” as these traditions are extremely diverse. What’s more, some of the earliest Muslims and Christians were also Africans, leaving a long and rich history of these religious traditions deeply ingrained in certain regions of Africa. On the other hand, there is merit in recognizing that religions like Islam and Christianity are religions practiced around the globe and were introduced to many regions of Africa in a colonial context. This does lead one to ask the question of what religious beliefs and practices were present in Africa prior to colonization? And in what ways is it different today to belong to a world religion in Africa like Islam and Christianity in comparison to a more localized religious tradition that is not known and practiced as widely?

First, let’s look at a brief overview of Islam and Christianity in West Africa. Islam began penetrating into West Africa somewhere around the 9th and 10th century CE through missionary efforts and trade networks. During the 11th century CE, various rulers throughout West Africa began accepting Islam. Since that time Islam has continued to grow in West Africa, producing large brotherhoods, important centers of Islamic learning, and becoming integrated into the laws, cultures, and political economy of various regions. Those West African countries today in which at least 50% of the population is Muslim include:

• Mauritania (99%+)
• Senegal (92%)
• Mali (90%)
• Gambia (90%)
• Guinea (85%)
• Niger (85%)
• Sierra Leone (60%)
• Nigeria (50%)

Each of these countries, and even regions within these countries, have quite a different history and tradition of Islam. Some, such as Niger, have only come to be a majority Muslim nation very recently, while others have a deeper history of widespread Islam in the region, such as Nigeria. Muslims throughout West Africa share commonalities too, such as prayer five times a day, a calendar of religious seasons and festivities, and upholding the Koran and the Prophet Muhammad’s life and teachings.

Christianity in West Africa has a shorter history than Islam. It did not come to that region of Africa until the era of European exploration and colonialism, apart from a few Christians who lived earlier on in the Sahara desert. This period of the spread of Christianity in West Africa began in the 15th century and continued into the 20th century. Many European Christians (and eventually Christians from other regions of the world too) began going to Africa as missionaries to convert Africans and “civilize” them. This, of course, wrongly assumed that Africans did not already have sophisticated civilizations and traditions, just as people in Europe did. Since colonization began, however, many Africans have adopted Christianity as their own religion. Some found that although missionaries often presented Christianity alongside European racist and ethnocentric assumptions, they could discover their own interpretations of Christianity that could challenge these. Today in West African countries such as Ghana and Nigeria, certain Christian churches are growing at a rapid pace. Those West African countries today in which at least 50% of the population is Christian include:

• Cape Verde (majority)
• Ghana (62%)

While there are few West African countries with majority Christian populations, there are still a large number of Christians in general in West Africa.

Other West African Religious Traditions

While Christianity and Islam are very important religions in West African societies, there are many more religious traditions that are upheld in this region. Just take a look at this list of countries that are considered to have a majority of the population (more than 50%) whose religion would fall into the “indigenous” religions category:

• Benin (70%)
• Togo (70%)
• Liberia (70%)
• Burkina Faso (65%)
• Cote d’Ivoire (60%)
• Guinea-Bissau (50%+)

Obviously many people practice “indigenous” religions in West Africa. But what are these religions and how are they practiced? It would be too much to try to list here the details of every religious tradition from West Africa. They are all unique in many ways, but they also share some common points such as belief in the supernatural, belief in a creator, certain rites and rituals that are performed, and teachings about right behavior and relationships in the world (all characteristics that are also present in Islam and Christianity).

The photos below are just a few examples of the types of “indigenous” religious practices that one can find in West Africa. The first photo is of a diviner—someone who seeks knowledge about the future or something else unknown, usually with the aid of supernatural powers. The second photo shows a man exiting a shrine—a place where homage is paid to a saint or diety. The third photo is a religious celebration in Nigeria. Again, these are just a few of many ways that West Africans express themselves through religious traditions that have developed in West Africa.

One final word on “indigenous” religions in West Africa is that it is important to remember that they are always dynamic and changing. This is, of course, true of all religions. We should not think of African “indigenous” religions as relics from the past which have not changed for thousands of years. Rather, they are as “modern” of religions as Islam, Christianity, or any other world religion. Each of these religions are rooted in a certain tradition and history, but each also adapts to contemporary circumstances to meet the needs of the people who practice the religion.

Such ideas about being “modern” or “traditional” can lead some Christian or Muslim groups to be critical or judgmental of some of the “indigenous” religious practices in West Africa. Other times Christians and Muslims are very tolerant and respectful of different religions.

Other World Religions Present in West Africa

Through missionary efforts, migration, and travel around the globe, other world religions have come to be practiced by West Africans as well. Some of these include Baha’i, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Judaism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. While these communities are generally small, they are also an important part of society in West Africa.

Syncretism: Is There Really Any Other Possibility?

At the beginning of this section on West African religions, we mentioned the word syncretism, meaning the combination or fusion of different religions. This term is often used to talk about how Africans have combined pre-colonial religious beliefs and practices with Christianity or Islam. But, as mentioned above, it is the nature of all religions to change over time. This has been the case for Christianity, Islam, and pre-colonial African religions. As groups of human beings with different cultures and religions come into contact with one another, there is bound to be an exchange of some kind. This is the phenomenon that the word syncretism attempts to describe. West Africans have, like all humans throughout history, combined various religious traditions that they have come into contact with as it best suits their needs.

VOCABULARY WORDS TO DEFINE:

1. Syncretism:

2. Diviner:

3. Shrine:

You can read more about religion in Africa in Module 14 of Exploring Africa.

2) The influence of colonialism and globalization on the West African market

Colonization in Africa has in many ways paved the way for economic relations that exist today in West Africa. During the colonial period, European colonizers made cash crops an important part of the markets of their colonies. Cash crops are grown to be sold, rather than used by the farmer her/himself. Colonial economies emphasized a pattern of exporting raw materials to be manufactured outside of West Africa. Manufactured materials then would be imported and sold back in West Africa. This system provided industrialized nations in Europe with cheap raw materials to fuel their economies. You can still see this trend in the chart below that lists primary exports and imports of each West African country today. As you read through them, you will note that exports tend to be raw materials (such as cotton, crude oil, or minerals) and imports tend to be manufactured goods (such as machinery, electrical equipment, or textiles). You will also note that in almost every case, one of the principle trade partners for each West African country is its respective former colonizer (noted in bold type). (Liberia is not included in this categorization because it is not usually considered to have a formal colonizer, although it was established as a country by the United States). Finally, you will notice in the chart below that only a few of the primary trade partners are with other African countries (noted in red). Thus, international trade relations of West African countries are oriented for the most part towards more highly industrialized nations rather than other countries in their region. And international trade laws and agreements tend to favor industrialized nations’ interests rather than the agricultural sector in African countries. For example many African nations are critical of wealthy nations’ agricultural subsidies—money supplemented by governments to farmers from wealthy nations so that they can export crops competitively. Africans argue that this makes it nearly impossible for African farmers to compete with prices on the world market. It is difficult for Africans to work towards changing this situation as it has become so engrained into international relations.

Related topics on international trade and the history of colonialism can be found in Module 7B African History 1500 to the Present and Module 9: African Economies.

Read the chart below through carefully and answer the questions about it that follow.

	Principal Trade Partners	Primary Exports	Primary Imports
Benin	France, Thailand, the Netherlands, the United States, and China	Cotton, crude oil, palm products, and cocoa	Foodstuffs, beverages, tobacco, petroleum products, capital goods, and light consumer goods
Burkina Faso	European Union (especially France), Côte d'Ivoire, Taiwan, and Thailand	Cotton, livestock products, and gold	Foodstuffs, petroleum, textiles, iron, steel, metal products, vehicles, electrical equipment, and machinery
Cape Verde Islands	Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, Brazil, the   United States, and Japan	Fish and bananas	Food stuffs, consumer goods,   industrial products, and transport equipment
Côte d'Ivoire	France, Nigeria, Japan, Netherlands, United States	Cocoa, coffee, tropical woods, petroleum, cotton, bananas, palm oil, pineapples, and fish	Food, capital goods, consumer goods, and fuel
Gambia	Great Britain, China, France, Germany, Russia, the United States	Peanuts and peanut products, fish, cotton lint, and palm kernels	Foodstuffs, manufactures, raw materials, fuel, machinery, and transport equipment
Ghana	United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Netherlands, and Japan	Cocoa, gold, timber, tuna, bauxite, aluminum, manganese ore, and diamonds	Petroleum, consumer goods, foods, and capital equipment
Guinea	France, Côte d'Ivoire, China, and Germany	Bauxite, alumina, diamonds, gold, coffee, pineapples, bananas, and palm kernels	Petroleum products, metals, machinery, transport equipment, textiles, and grain
Guinea-Bissau	China, Germany, Netherlands, Portugal,   and Senegal	Cashew nuts, palm kernels, peanuts, and fish	Foodstuffs, machinery, petroleum products, and transport equipment
Liberia	United States, European Union, Japan, China, and South Korea	Iron ore, rubber, timber, and coffee	Mineral fuels, chemicals, machinery, transportation equipment, manufactured goods, rice, and other foodstuffs
Mali	FrancophoneWest Africa, and the European Union (especially France)	Cotton, livestock and gold	Machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, construction materials, petroleum, and textiles
Mauritania	Algeria, China, United States, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy	Iron ore, fish, and fish products	Foodstuffs, consumer goods, petroleum products, and capital goods
Niger	France, Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire, Algeria, China, and Japan	Uranium ore, livestock products, cowpeas, and onions	Consumer goods, primary materials, machinery, vehicles and parts, petroleum, and cereals
Nigeria	United States, Europe, and Japan	Oil, cocoa, and rubber	Machinery, transportation equipment, manufactured goods, chemicals, and food
Senegal	European Union (especially France),Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire, Algeria, China, and Japan	Fish, peanuts, petroleum products, phosphates, and cotton	Foods and beverages, consumer goods, capital goods, and petroleum
Sierra Leone	United States, United Kingdom, Belgium, and Germany	Rutile, bauxite, diamonds, coffee, cocoa, and fish	Foodstuffs, machinery and equipment, fuels, and lubricants
Togo	European Union, Africa, United States, and Japan	Phosphates, cotton, cocoa, and coffee	Machinery and equipment, consumers goods, food, and chemical products

Côte d’Ivoire and the Global Economy

Côte d’Ivoire is an economic hub of West Africa, representing at least 40% of the UEMOA’s (West African Economic Union of eight former French colonies using the CFA currency) GDP. As such, people come from all over West Africa to look for work there. Before the recent conflict began in 2002, one third of Côte d’Ivoire’s population were immigrants. Some of the largest groups were:

Burkinabé (people from Burkina Faso): 3 million
Malians: 1 million
Nigerians: 1 million

The majority of these immigrants come to Côte d’Ivoire to work on cocoa and coffee plantations. And large international corporations such as Nestle, Hershey’s, Archer Midland Daniels, and M&M/Mars own most of these plantations. Côte d’Ivoire supplies about 40% of the world’s stock of cocoa, and it is one of the 10 major coffee exporters in the world. It has been reported that working conditions on many of these plantations are in violation of internationally recognized human rights. For example, child labor is used on some farms and workers are often not paid or treated well. Nevertheless, people have continued to migrate to Côte d’Ivoire, looking for work in spite of these difficult working conditions. Many of these migrant laborers come from regions of West Africa where it is difficult to grow enough food to last through the entire year, and other employment opportunities are scarce.

Migration and Ethno-Religious Diversity in Côte d’Ivoire 

Ivoirian (the term used to describe things or people from Côte d’Ivoire) society is composed of many different cultural and religious traditions. As mentioned above, many migrants come to Côte d’Ivoire from all over West Africa. Some of them are there only seasonally, while others settle permanently. In addition to the cultural and religious diversity that migrants bring to Côte d’Ivoire, there are many other ethno-linguistic (over 60) and religious groups that have lived in Côte d’Ivoire for many generations. The majority (60%) of the population have religious practices that would be considered “indigenous”; 20% are Christian; and 20% are Muslim. Many of the Muslims in Côte d’Ivoire are migrants from neighboring West African countries. Significant numbers of French and Lebanese have also settled in Côte d’Ivoire. While Côte d’Ivoire has generally been welcoming to foreigners since independence, an ideology of “Ivorianness” has also been promoted. This advocates priority for people whose parents are both Ivorian citizens, creating social divisions between immigrants and nationals.

It is, thus, a highly stratified society, both ethnically and economically. Even amongst those who have two Ivorian parents, some ethnic or religious groups find themselves with more political and economic clout than others. The current president, Laurent Gbagbo has been accused, for example, of excluding from the ruling elite anyone who is not from the south of the country and a Christian. Generally speaking, divisions created according to socio-economic class, religion, and ethnicity have produced a society with extremes of wealth and poverty in Côte d’Ivoire. These extremes have fueled a recent civil war in Côte d’Ivoire that began in 2002.

7.  NUR AISYAH

Culture of the United States

            American culture is a Western culture, largely based on British culture with influences from other parts of Europe, the Native American peoples, African Americans and to a lesser extent Asian Americans and other young groups of immigrants. Due to the extent of American culture there are many integrated but unique subcultures within the U.S.

Attitudes

The formative years of the United States were the late 18th century when the country was founded, and a great deal of U.S. culture is couched in the ideals of The Enlightenment.

The Declaration's mission statement about securing life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness; French revolution's ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity; and the national motto of E pluribus unum ("From many, one") reflect the country's values and social development. Another primary influence on American culture is the constant stream of new immigrants, many of whom had fled persecution or oppression in their home countries, and were seeking freedom (including religious freedom) and economic opportunity, leading them to reject totalitarian practices.

By and large, Americans value the ideals of individual liberty, individualism, self-sufficiency, altruism, equality, Judeo-Christian morals, free markets, a republican form of government, democracy, populism, pluralism, feminism, and patriotism. (Americans often believe that their patriotism has nuances that differentiate it from nationalism and nationalism's negative connotations.)

Society and economic attitudes

There is a close relationship between America's political and economic traditions: that the individual pursuit of self-interest leads to the best result both for the individual and for society as a whole, is believed to be a successful formula for both economic success and optimal political function. The precise amount of individual economic freedom that Americans should have is often debated, with the (usually slight) differences in opinion marking the major differences between political parties. The end result, however, is that the U.S. economy has become the largest on earth, with most of its citizens enjoying comparatively high living standards.

The fact that the United States is the largest English-speaking marketplace allows firms to compete across the country and to enjoy economies of scale (cost reductions that arise from the huge scale of manufacturing) that reduce prices and benefit consumers. The relatively uniform commercial culture--with many large stores or "chains" operating nationwide--produces a commercial atmosphere that is relatively homogeneous throughout the country.

The population of the United States tends to be centered in large cities, in marked contrast to the demographics of a century ago, when the country was quite agrarian.

The United States is generally skeptical or hostile toward socialist and communist ideologies, but some of the related movements, such as the labor movement, became a defining part of America's heritage after the New Deal. The country was less affected by socialist ideas in the 20th century than was Europe, and the McCarthy Era and the Cold War as a whole demonstrated a deeply felt hostility to communism, which, especially at that time, was perceived as anti-individualist, undemocratic, and essentially anti-American. They are also evidenced in aspects of social policy (for example, the absence of a national health care system and the constant controversy about the size and role of the government, especially the federal government, in individuals' lives and in states' laws).

The American tradition of free-market capitalism has led the populace (and their leaders) to generally accept the vicissitudes of the free market and the continuous alterations to society that a changing economy implies, although social and economic displacement are common. The result is a flexible, profit-oriented socioeconomic system.

Relationship to other countries/cultures

Some Americans exhibit ethnocentric or insular outlooks, with little interest in the culture or political developments of other countries. For example, as a possible result of this trait, comparatively few books from European countries or Japan are translated for sale in the United States and sales of those that are translated tend to be slow. Imported films are generally less successful than domestic productions. Likewise, imported television shows are also rarely successful, except on PBS, although remakes of foreign shows are increasingly common (though there are of course exceptions, such as anime and Monty Python).

This is emphasized in the Americanization of such television shows as The Office, Queer as Folk, Red Dwarf and even Dad's Army. In this process, the show is often rewritten and localized with American actors cast in the place of their British counterparts. By contrast, in many other countries, films and television programs produced abroad are broadcast unchanged (except for dubbing/subtitling).

Americans also tend to travel to other countries less than citizens of European countries, for example, partly because international travel from the United States typically entails much further distances than for Europeans resulting in much higher costs. The average American worker has fewer vacation days than the average European (10-15 rather than the European average of around 20). America's vast size also enables its citizens to go great distances, and see a variety of places, without leaving the country. For example, one can travel from a near-tropical region (e.g. Southern Texas) to a frigid region (Minnesota). Lifestyles, food, and culture also tends to differ within the different regions.

Body contact and expression

In most regions of the U.S., public display of affection, as well as significant expression of emotion, was historically disapproved and discouraged, prior to the mid-20th century. Such attitudes have seen considerable change, however, with the cultural revolutions of the 1960s and 1970s. There is considerable variation with respect to attitudes, mostly generational in nature, and while Americans are not generally as demonstrative of their affections as, say, Latin Americans or Southern Europeans, they are considerably more so than, for instance, the Northern Europeans or the Japanese, have been historically.

Names

The citizens and many other residents of the United States refer to themselves and each other as Americans, and to their country as the United States or as America. Non-Hispanic Americans understand, and may say, "the Americas" with the meaning of the two major continents of the Western hemisphere, but generally will resist using "America" in that sense, despite that designation's familiarity to Spanish speakers. While to many foreigners "Yankees" is synonymous with the American people, Americans almost always use the term for the sports team, for New Englanders, New Yorkers, or with reference to those living in the northern U.S. in contrast to Southerners. The major exception to that is Americans' occasional ironic usage of "Yankee" (or especially "Yank", construed by Americans as a British usage), in attempting to convey either striving to transcend American parochialism, or resignation to the failure of any such striving. "The States" is a term generally used when referring to the country from an overseas or Canadian vantage point. "The US" or "The U.S." is a casual, short-hand term.
When discussing the American Civil War, Americans use the phrase "the Union" to refer to the states that remained under the control of the federal government in Washington and did not secede to join the Confederacy. The phrase is also occasionally used in contemporary discussions of American federalism and states' rights.

Fairly formal terms, still short-hand, evoking patriotic observances (possibly with irony) are "U.S.A." (with or without the periods, and usually with "the"); a more marked version is "the U. S. of A." The official name of the nation, the "United States of America," is very formal and is most often used in formal government documents, pledges, or ceremonies, but not in colloquial conversations.

Intra-national allegiances

Because of the size and large population of the country, America is often described as a nation of joiners who tend to self-associate with non-familial groups. Individuals tend to perceive themselves as "free agents" rather than bound by family or clan ties.

Group allegiances are sometimes regional, but can also be related to a professional or fraternal organization. For example, residents of North Carolina are proud to be "Tar Heels," Indiana residents are "Hoosiers" and many cities have a strong sense of civic identity, often reinforced by an innocuous but deeply felt rivalry with another local city. An example of such a rivalry exists between the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota. A strong rivalry that continues to this day involves the cities of Boston and New York, which is centered around the historic baseball rivalry between the New York Yankees and the Boston Red Sox.

Recent immigrants tend to congregate with other immigrants from their country of origin, often establishing neighborhoods (sometimes called ethnic enclaves) in cities with popular names like "Chinatown", "Poletown", or "Little Saigon." Second- and third-generation descendants of immigrants tend to have looser affiliations with their ethnic groups.

America has tens of thousands of clubs and organizations, and if a group has a charitable or service orientation, Americans may volunteer their time through those groups. Examples of these groups include the Rotary Club, the Boy Scouts of America, Little League, etc.

Food

The types of food served at home vary the most and depend upon the region of the country and the family's own cultural heritage. Americanized versions of these cultural foods, such as American Chinese cuisine, sometimes appear. Recent immigrants tend to eat food similar to that of their country of origin. Families that have lived for a few generations in the U.S. tend to eat some combination of that and the food common to the region they live in or grew up in, such as New England cuisine, Midwestern cuisine, Southern cuisine, Tex-Mex cuisine, and Californian cuisine.

Popular culture

The United States is known around the world for the films, shows, and musical performances that it produces. The biggest centers of popular American culture are New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Florida, and Las Vegas. Smaller venues such as Branson, Missouri and Nashville have become popular, but most cities host travelling productions of popular Broadway shows.

Technology and gadgets

Americans, by and large, are often fascinated by new technology and new gadgets. Many of the new technological innovations in the modern world were either first invented in the United States and/or first widely adopted by Americans. Examples are: automobiles, personal computers, the Internet, online shopping, and the iPod. There are also many within the United States that share the attitude that through technology many of the evils in the society can be cured.

Tobacco

Use of tobacco has statistically decreased sharply among Americans; there are strong education effects, with use at only 10% among the college educated, while continuing at 40% among high school dropouts. Users smoke cigarettes; a fraction smoke cigars or pipes. Fewer and fewer public places, or business places, permit smoking. Often smokers are forced outside the building. Some cities and even some states, such as California, New York, New Jersey, Washington, and Florida, prohibit smoking inside public places.

Sports

American sports are quite distinct from those played elsewhere in the world. The "big three" are baseball, football and basketball, which are all popular on both the college and professional levels.

Baseball has a huge following and is referred to as the "national pastime"; Major League Baseball teams play almost every day from April to October.

American football (known simply as "football" in the U.S.) attracts more viewers within the country than baseball nowadays; however, National Football League teams play only 16 regular-season games each year, so baseball is the runaway leader in ticket sales.

Basketball, invented in Massachusetts by the Canadian-born James Naismith, is another popular sport, represented professionally by the National Basketball Association.

NASCAR has also grown from a mainly Southern sport to the second-most-watched sport in America behind football. Less popular, but still considered a major spectator sport, is hockey. Hockey, always a mainstay of Great Lakes area culture, gained tenuous footholds in regions like the Carolinas and Tampa Bay, Florida in recent years, as the National Hockey League pursued a policy of expansion.

Unlike in Europe, Africa, and Latin America, soccer has a relatively small following, and is mostly popular in the more international cities with large immigrant populations, like New York and Los Angeles. Generally few non-Hispanic American adults appear to be attracted to soccer as spectators, but the sport is widely played by children of all backgrounds.

The extent in America to which sports are associated with secondary and tertiary education is unique among nations. Particularly notable in basketball and football, high school and particularly college sports are followed with a fervor equalling or exceeding that felt for professional sports; college football games can draw six-digit crowds and, for upper-tier schools, sports are a significant source of revenue. Though student athletes may be held to significantly lower academic requirements than non-athletes at universities, a minimum standard does exist.

Clothing

            Dress was moderately formal until the 1960s, when a revolution took place that stressed casual and informal, and in the Western tradition of pants and a shirt. Exceptions are major cities such as New York and Los Angeles, where many residents embrace a more expensive and "stylish" approach to fashion. Social and business situations may call for tailored suits or other more elegant outfits. Tuxedos and evening dress occasions have become much less common since 1960. The top hat vanished in 1960--along with most millinery. Skirts and dresses are usually exclusively reserved for females. Men wear kilts only as part of celebrations such as parades, or as part of a family reunion tradition. Jeans, a T-shirt and athletic shoes come close to being a "national uniform".

Types of clothing worn often have something to do with which region of the country people live in. Some Texans and residents of the Southwest dress in boots and hats in a style typically associated with traditional cowboys. In the region from New England to New Jersey, preppy style clothing is popular. In the South, people sometimes dress more casually, although formality in certain contexts is valued some parts of the region, a trend which may also influence ethnic groups outside the South, including African Americans.

The greatest variations in dress are related to climate. Easterners generally tend to dress more formally than Westerners, though this is also closely connected with cultural history as well. Residents of northern states wear heavy sweaters, warm, water-resistant boots, stocking caps and heavy coats or down parkas in the cold season. In Hawaii, the Hawaiian shirt as an acceptable item of wear by men has received formal approval by the state legislature. In beach areas and places with relatively warm and consistent climates, especially California, Hawaii, and Florida, "skimpy" clothing is considered acceptable in all but the most formal settings. Cowboy hats, Western boots and large silver belt buckles are found in southwestern and western regions of the United States, particularly Texas and Arizona. However, many from the Southern United States dress in the aforementioned jeans and t-shirt.

The trend toward informality has increased among many segments of society. For instance, students at colleges and universities are often noted for wearing flip flops or thong sandals as well as pajamas to class.

makassar's culture of traditional house and food

traditionalhouseand food inmakassar

            Traditional House Bugis Makassar is a wooden house on stilts. According to Robinson (1993), house wooden stage represents a long-standing tradition, a tradition which is also widespread in the Malay world. Basic form of the house is a wooden frame in which the pole holding the floor and the roof of a variety of materials. Increasing diversity of materials in the contemporary world after the establishment of a more dikomoditikan. Uniqueness of the house than the houses on stilts Bugis of Sumatra and Kalimantan is an elongated shape to the rear with the added addition to the main building and the front (the bugis called lego - lego, makassar: Dego - Dego).Bugis custom homes reflect a distinct aesthetic that made beautiful objects of material culture. Parts - the main house consists of the main mast (alliri), consisting of 4 rods each line. The amount depends on the number of rooms will be made, but in general, consists of 3/4 line alliri. So in total there are 12 rods alliri, Padongko, which is part of the house into a connector of alliri in each row, and Pattoppo, which is part of the house into a hook at the top of alliri the middle of each row.Custom homes in Pangkep Karaeng Labakkang.The stage house typical of Bugis Makassar wood refers to the fad belief that the universe is composed of three parts, the upper (botting rainbow), middle (alang tengnga / ale sphere) and bottom (awa sao / peretiwi / Bori liu). That is why the traditional Bugis Makassar house also consists of three parts, namely Rakkeang, the roof of the house. First is usually used to store the newly harvested rice. The second, Ball Ale, which is the center of the house. where we live. Ale on this ball, there is a central point called the center of the house (posi 'ball), and Awa ball, namely the lower house, the floor of the house to the ground.

            Houses with architecture berkolong home to many of the Bugis Makassar considered very safe and comfortable, but it's because this house is made from wood can stand up even without a single nail. Everything is pure to use wood. More unique is this house can lift / move. Form of the house must be the Bugis Makassar square. This relates to the philosophy of life sulapa EppaE (or square of four).In addition to embracing the concept of nature / beliefs about the world's top center, the middle world and the world under the on rumahpun any home center called POSSI ball, which is one of the second pillar of the front and is located next to the right. That is also why the ceremonial menre Baruga (menre ball), offerings - offerings are often placed in "POSSI ball" because that's where the spirits (or supernatural beings) are considered together, especially if there are events and special events in the family.Related to the house, it is okay to choose one among the four directions of the compass. But after the Islamic influence into the new presumption arises that the best way home is facing East, which means tampingnya located in the north. The house is facing south means tampingnya located on the east. Because there is a provision in the community that was home in bed, head to the right side of the house should be and must be in the direction of tamping foot (left side) and should not be in the direction of the Ka'bah (Qiblah the prayer). In other words should not be to the west because of the Kaaba is located on the west.B. Beliefs and symbols - symbols of the House

            In ancient times, the Bugis - Makassar have confidence that the location of homes arranged so that adjacent residential work (rice field, farm or beach) or close to home family / relatives. This has led to the emergence and Kampung Kampung Pallaonruma Pakkaja, but now it is not a requirement anymore. Prominent features in the majority of the Bugis Makassar is that they always will be settled and the natives in a place where they are dependent. They will build there and will die there too. It is highly related to their livelihood, such as a farmer would live or build a house near the land they farm or region. Farmers will tend to build his house in a location not too far from the empangnya.Space and symbolism seen in a traditional house is a spiritual and physical focus for the residents, the association is seeking metaphysical vitality, protection and harmony. As has been described by Bourdieu, 'residential space', especially the home, is a principal tool in articulating and understanding the social structure. The division of space in the house into a 'real classification system (a) continuous delivery and promote principles - principles that underlie all the provisions of taxonomic cultural arbitrary'.

8. NINA SLVI ANA

Indian Culture: Traditions and Customs of India

Colorful reliefs of Hindu gods adorn a temple at Meenakshi, India

The culture of India is among the world's oldest, reaching back about 5,000 years. Many sources describe it as "Sa Prathama Sanskrati Vishvavara" — the first and the supreme culture in the world. India is a very diverse country, and different regions have their own distinct cultures. Language, religion, food and the arts are just some of the various aspects of Indian culture. Here is a brief overview of the culture of India

Language

            India has 28 states and seven territories, and each has at least one official language. While the national languages are Hindi and English, there are about 22 official languages and nearly 400 living languages spoken in various parts of the country. Most of the languages of India belong to two families, Aryan and Dravidian.

Religion

            India is identified as the birthplace of Hinduism and Buddhism. A huge majority — 84 percent — of the population identifies as Hindu. There are many variations of Hinduism, and four predominant sects — Shaiva, Vaishnava, Shakteya and Smarta.

About 13 percent of Indians are Muslim, making it one of the largest Islamic nations in the world. Christians and Sikhs make up a small percentage of the population, and there are even fewer Buddhists and Jains.

Food

Indian cuisine boasts Arab, Turkish and European influences. It is known for its large assortment of dishes and its liberal use of herbs and spices. Cooking styles vary from region to region.

Wheat, Basmati rice and pulses with chana (Bengal gram) are important staples of the Indian diet. The food is rich with curries and spices, including ginger, coriander, cardamom, turmeric, dried hot peppers, and cinnamon, among others. Chutneys — thick condiments and spreads made from assorted fruits and vegetables such as tamarind and tomatoes and mint, cilantro and other herbs — are used generously in Indian cooking.

Many Hindus are vegetarians, but lamb and chicken are common in main dishes for non-vegetarians.

Much of Indian food is eaten with fingers or bread used as utensils. There is a wide array of breads served with meals, including naan, a leavened, oven-baked flatbread, and bhatoora, a fried, fluffy flatbread common in North India and eaten with chickpea curry.

The Taj Mahal was built between 1631 and 1653.

Architecture

The most well-known example of Indian architecture is the Taj Mahal, built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan to honor his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It combines elements from Islamic, Persian, Ottoman Turkish and Indian architectural styles. India also has many ancient temples.

Arts

India is well known for its film industry, which is based in Mumbai and is often referred to as Bollywood. The country began as a major producer of movies in the 1930s. Today the films are known for their elaborate singing and dancing and Bollywood produces more films per year than Hollywood.

Indian dance has a tradition of more than 2,000 years. The major classical dance traditions — Bharata Natyam, Kathak, Odissi, Manipuri, Kuchipudi, Mohiniattam and Kathakali — draw on themes from mythology and literature and have rigid presentation rules.

Clothing

Indian clothing is closely identified with the colorful silk saris worn by many of the country’s women. The traditional clothing for men is the dhoti, an unstitched piece of cloth about 5 yards long that is tied around the waist and legs. Men also wear a kurta, a loose shirt that is worn about knee-length. For special occasions, men wear a sherwani, which is a long coat that is buttoned up to the collar and down to the knees.

Customs and celebrations

The country celebrates Republic Day (Jan. 26), Independence Day (Aug. 15) and Mahatma Gandhi's Birthday (Oct. 2). There are also a number of Hindu festival that are celebrated, including Diwali, a five-day festival known as the festival of lights and marks a time of home-based family celebrations.  

Toraja Culture and Ancient Tradition

Culture and Ancient tradition
            Toraja's indigenous belief system is polytheistic animism, called Aluk, or "the way" (sometimes translated as "the law"). In the Toraja myth, the ancestors of Torajan people came down from heaven using stairs, which were then used by the Torajans as a communication medium with Puang Matua, the Creator. The cosmos, according to Aluk, is divided into the upper world (heaven), the world of man (earth), and the underworld. At first, heaven and earth were married, then there was a darkness, a separation, and finally the light. Animals live in the underworld, which is represented by rectangular space enclosed by pillars, the earth is for mankind, and the heaven world is located above, covered with a saddle-shaped roof. Other Toraja Gods include Pong Banggai di Rante (god of Earth), Indo' Ongon-Ongon (a goddess who can cause earthquakes), Pong Lalondong (god of death), and Indo' Belo Tumbang (goddess of medicine); there are many more.

The earthly authority, whose words and actions should be cleaved to both in life (agriculture) and death (funerals), is called To Minaa (an aluk priest). Aluk is not just a belief system; it is a combination of law, religion, and habit. Aluk governs social life, agricultural practices, and ancestral rituals. The details of aluk may vary from one village to another. One common law is the requirement that death and life rituals be separated. Torajans believe that performing death rituals might ruin their corpses if combined with life rituals. The two rituals are equally important. During the time of the Dutch missionaries, Christian Torajans were prohibited from attending or performing life rituals, but were allowed to perform death rituals. Consequently, Toraja's death rituals are still practiced today, while life rituals have diminished.

Toraja people enjoy great longevity-surely something to do with the cool climate and active lifestyle from infancy to old age. They spend their lives growing excellent fragrant rice, raising magnificent buffalo, especially the highly valued pink albino strains. Their work is interspersed with dramatic ceremonies. Harvest festivals and house warming festivals, are times for feasting and a gathering of the clan, times to wear their best costumes and jewellery, bring out the tuak (a local brew) and party for days on end, times for singing and dancing and, of course, eating. These are also times for neighbours and clan members to pay their respects and to pay back obligations that may date back generations.

Family affiliation
Family is the primary social and political grouping in Torajan society. Each village is one extended family, the seat of which is the Tongkonan, a traditional Torajan house. Each Tongkonan has a name, which becomes the name of the village. The familial dons maintain village unity. Marriage between distant cousins (fourth cousins and beyond) is a common practice that strengthens kinship. Toraja society prohibits marriage between close cousins (up to and including the third cousin)-except for nobles, to prevent the dispersal of property. Kinship is actively reciprocal, meaning that the extended family helps each other farm, share buffalo rituals, and pay off debts.

Each person belongs to both the mother's and the father's families, the only bilateral family line in Indonesia. Children, therefore, inherit household affiliation from both mother and father, including land and even family debts. Children's names are given on the basis of kinship, and are usually chosen after dead relatives. Names of aunts, uncles and cousins are commonly referred to in the names of mothers, fathers and siblings.

Before the start of the formal administration of Toraja villages by the Tana Toraja Regency, each Toraja village was autonomous. In a more complex situation, in which one Toraja family could not handle their problems alone, several villages formed a group; sometimes, villages would unite against other villages. Relationship between families was expressed through blood, marriage, and shared ancestral houses (Tongkonan), practically signed by the exchange of buffalo and pigs on ritual occasions. Such exchanges not only built political and cultural ties between families but defined each person's place in a social hierarchy: who poured palm wine, who wrapped a corpse and prepared offerings, where each person could or could not sit, what dishes should be used or avoided, and even what piece of meat constituted one's share.

Class affiliation
In early Toraja society, family relationships were tied closely to social class. The structure of the caste of Torajan people according to Aluk are:

1. Tana Bulaan (Tana = caste, Bulaan = gold) Nobles never marry lower class people. Moreover, if someone divorces his/her spouse, then he/she has to pay 24 buffaloes to the divorced his/her spouse.
2.  Tana Bassi(Tana = caste, Bassi = iron) Lower than Tana Bulaan. A person has to pay 10 buffaloes to his/her divorced spouse.
3. Tana Karurung (common people) a person has to pay 2 buffaloes to his/her divorced spouse.
4. Tana Kuakua (slaves) there are still some people in certain areas having slaves to take care of their rice farm. The slaves are paid and given adequate food. In the past, slaves were not paid.

            In general there were three strata: nobles, commoners, and slaves (slavery was abolished in 1909 by the Dutch East Indies government). Class was inherited through the mother. It was taboo, therefore, to marry "down" with a woman of lower class. On the other hand, marrying a woman of higher class could improve the status of the next generation. The nobility's condescending attitude toward the commoners is still maintained today for reasons of family prestige.

Nobles, who were believed to be direct descendants of the descended person from heaven, lived in Tongkonans, while commoners lived in less lavish houses (bamboo shacks called Banua). Slaves lived in small huts, which had to be built around their owner's Tongkonan. Commoners might marry anyone, but nobles preferred to marry in-family to maintain their status. Sometimes nobles married Bugis or Makassarese nobles. Commoners and slaves were prohibited from having death feasts. Despite close kinship and status inheritance, there was some social mobility, as marriage or change in wealth could affect an individuals status. Wealth was counted by the ownership of water buffaloes.

Slaves in Toraja society were family property. Sometimes Torajans decided to become slaves when they incurred a debt, pledging to work as payment. Slaves could be taken during wars, and slave trading was common. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still inherited slave status. Slaves were prohibited from wearing bronze or gold, carving their houses, eating from the same dishes as their owners, or having sex with free women-a crime punishable by death.

Dance and music

Torajans perform dances on several occasions, most often during their elaborate funeral ceremonies. They dance to express their grief, and to honor and even cheer the deceased person because he is going to have a long journey in the afterlife. First, a group of men form a circle and sing a monotonous chant throughout the night to honor the deceased (a ritual called Ma'badong). This is considered by many Torajans to be the most important component of the funeral ceremony. On the second funeral day, the Ma'randing warrior dance is performed to praise the courage of the deceased during life. Several men perform the dance with a sword, a large shield made from buffalo skin, a helmet with a buffalo horn, and other ornamentation. The Ma'randing dance precedes a procession in which the deceased is carried from a rice barn to the Rante, the site of the funeral ceremony. During the funeral, elder women perform the Ma'katia dance while singing a poetic song and wearing a long feathered costume. The Ma'akatia dance is performed to remind the audience of the generosity and loyalty of the deceased person. After the bloody ceremony of buffalo and pig slaughter, a group of boys and girls clap their hands while performing a cheerful dance called Ma'dondan.
As in other agricultural societies, Torajans dance and sing during harvest time. The Ma'bugi dance celebrates the thanksgiving event, and the Ma'gandangi dance is performed while Torajans are pounding rice. There are several war dances, such as the Manimbong dance performed by men, followed by the Ma'dandan dance performed by women. The Aluk religion governs when and how Torajans dance. A dance called Ma'bua can be performed only once every 12 years. Ma'bua is a major Toraja ceremony in which priests wear a buffalo head and dance around a sacred tree.

A traditional musical instrument of the Toraja is a bamboo flute called a Pa'suling (suling is an Indonesian word for flute). This six-holed flute (not unique to the Toraja) is played at many dances, such as the thanksgiving dance Ma'bondensan, where the flute accompanies a group of shirtless, dancing men with long fingernails. The Toraja have indigenous musical instruments, such as the Pa'pelle (made from palm leaves) and the Pa'karombi (the Torajan version of a Jew's harp). The Pa'pelle is played during harvest time and at house inauguration ceremonies.

Language
The ethnic Toraja language is dominant in Tana Toraja with the main language is the Sa'dan Toraja. Although the national Indonesian language is the official language and is spoken in the community, all elementary schools in Tana Toraja teach Toraja language.

Language varieties of Toraja, including Kalumpang, Mamasa, Tae' , Talondo' , Toala' , and Toraja-Sa'dan, belong to the Malayo-Polynesian language from the Austronesian family. At the outset, the isolated geographical nature of Tana Toraja formed many dialects between the Toraja languages themselves. After the formal administration of Tana Toraja, some Toraja dialects have been influenced by other languages through the transmigration program, introduced since the colonialism period, and it has been a major factor in the linguistic variety of Toraja languages.

A prominent attribute of Toraja language is the notion of grief. The importance of death ceremony in Toraja culture has characterized their languages to express intricate degrees of grief and mourning. The Toraja language contains many terms referring sadness, longing, depression, and mental pain. It is a catharsis to give a clear notion about psychological and physical effect of loss, and sometimes to lessen the pain of grief itself.


9. NGATINI

Arts and Culture of Java

Characteristics of Javanese culture is very complex. The island has a wide range of cultures, from the primitive, traditional, to modern. Like we said at overview of Java Indonesia, The majority ethnic population of Java island is Javanese and Sundanese. In general, the Javanese inhabiting the center and eastern part of Java while the Sundanese in the the western area. Every single area has its own culture and traditional art.

Jakarta has its own culture, namely “Betawi”. Which the influences reached this Special Capital District for centuries. This Betawi culture is uniquely blending Arab, Portuguese, Chinese, and Dutch elements with native ingenuity such as Malay and Sundanesehas produces the colorful. The word “Betawi” is came from “Batavia”, the old name of Jakarta during the Dutch administration.

Badui tribe in BantenInBanten province, there are Baduy tribe. Baduy tribe in a native Banten peoples still maintain the anti-modernity, both in garments and others. Baduy tribes living in the area Kendeng Mountains.Baduy dwellings are generally located in river basins in the mountains Kendeng. Banten is also famous for its Debus art. Debus is martial art associated. This traditional and mystical arts combined with dance, voice, and magic.

In West Java province is Sundanese. Sundanese live in west area of Java island with Javanese people. Although Sundanese live in the same island with Javanese, they consider themselves a distinct cultural area called Sunda, you can read about general culture of West Java province in the past articles.

Gamelan orchestra from Central javaThe majority of the population of Central Java are Javanese. Central Java is known as the central cultural of Javanese, where in the city of Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta, there is Javanese royal palaces in this two cities that still stand today. One of the famous musical instruments of these regions is the gamelan orchestra.

A gamelan is a musical orchestra, featuring a variety of instruments such as xylophones, drums, gongs, metallophones, bamboo flutes, bowed and plucked strings. Vocalists may also be included. Javanese gamelan orchestra has a unique scales, which differ from international music, namely “Slendro” and “Pelog”. In Javanese mythology, the gamelan was created by Sang Hyang Guru in Saka Era, the god who controls all the land of Java, with palaces on the Mahendra hill in Medangkamulan (now Mount Lawu).

Wayang or Javanese puppet also the famous traditional art in the central part of Java. This traditional puppet show has been recognized by UNESCO on November 7, 2003, as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. Puppet has several versions.WayangKulit, the Javanese puppet show WayangKulit (Shadow puppet) pretty well known in Central Java and Yogyakarta, while the WayangGolek is more popular in West Java. There is also a puppet version played by men, known as Wayang Orang. Ketoprak also popular in this area.

Culture and customs of the East Java received a lot of influence from the Central Java, so the area is known as Mataraman; indicates that the area was once the domain of the Sultanate of Mataram in Central Java (Now at Yogyakarta and Surakarta). The area includes Madiun, Kediri, and partially Bojonegoro. Just as in Central Java, WayangKulitare quite popular in this region.

Gandrung dance from BanyuwangiEast Java has a number of distinctive artistry. Ludruk is one of East Java art is quite well known, namely the opera art show that all players are male. Unlike ketoprak in Central Java which tells the life of the ancient palace, ludruk told the daily life of common people, who are often spiced with humor and social criticism, and generally opened with Dance Remo and Parikan. Currently, traditional ludruk groups can be found in the area of Surabaya, Mojokerto, and Jombang, although its presence increasingly defeated by modernization. There is also a famous dance In Eastern side of Java, namely Gandrung dance.

The ReogshowIs a typical artistic ReogPonorogo which has been patented since 2001, reog now also become icons of East Javanese art.Reog show accompanied by equestrians (kuda lumping) and supernatural elements. Other well-known art of East Java among others ara East Javanese style shadow puppets, TopengDalang in Madura, and besutan. In areas Mataraman, Middle Javanese arts such as wayangkulit and ketoprak quite popular.Famous legend from East Java, among others namely Damarwulan and Angling Darma.

Japanese Culture

For many people, the mention of Japanese culture conjours up images of weird masks and extravagantly made-up actors twirling red umbrellas on a stage and elegant, kimono-clad ladies demurely pouring cups of tea in tranquil cherry-blossomed temples. Well, even today you can still experience all that kind of stuff, if you know where to look.

The traditional arts of Japan offer an opportunity to experience something truly exotic or find inner calm. For the serious practitioner, solemn awareness of the history and intimate knowledge of the past-masters of your chosen form of expression are essential if you wish to practice at the highest level. These ancient 'ways' are not for the faint of heart, but many foreigners come to Japan each year to enlighten themselves through their study. For the rest of us, just a nibble at this great banquet of culture will be more than enough.

The Japanese do know how to kick back and have fun, too. You might be surprised by just how wild a Japanese festival can get! Snow festivals, fire festivals, fertility festivals - you name it, they have it. When it comes to food, the Japanese are as enthusiastic as anybody on earth - the changing seasons bring new delicacies and an excuse to travel the length of the country to sample local dishes. Spring also brings the cherry blossoms - symbol of life's all-too-brief span and a good excuse to get drunk and dance around in a cemetery! The beauty of summer fireworks and autumn's spectacular changing leaves can also take the breath away.

The Japanese performing arts have made some unique contributions to world culture

• Kabuki Theater
• Noh Theater
• Bunraku - Puppet Theater
• Geisha
• Musical Instruments

The quieter and more contemplative arts have developed followings world-wide

• Sado - Tea Ceremony
• Kodo - The Way of Incense
• Ikebana - Flower Arranging
• Ukiyoe - Woodblock Prints
• Bonsai - Miniature Trees
• Origami - Paper Folding
• Classical Literature
• Modern Literature

Japanese royalty has a history dating back many centuries

• Imperial Family

Many cultural events fill out the annual calendar, with something in every season

• Annual Festivals
• Annual Holidays
• Four Seasons
• Hanami - Cherry Blossom Viewing

Japanese costume is unique, differing greatly even from those of other Asian cultures

• Kimono
• Footwear

Japanese food, sushi in particular, is popular arould the world and renowned for its health benefits

• The Basics of Japanese Cuisine
• Popular Dishes
• Alcohol - Sake, Beer and more

10. PUTRI ALAWIYAH

 ARAB DRESS MEN

Arab dress for men ranges from the traditional flowing robes to blue

jeans, T-shirts and western business suits. The robes allow for

maximum circulation of air around the body to help keep it cool, and

the head dress provides protection from the sun. At times, Arabs mix

the traditional garb with Western clothes.

Headdress pattern might be an indicator of which tribe, clan, or family

the wearer comes from. However this is not always the case. While in

one village, a tribe or clan might have a unique headdress, in the next

town over an unrelated tribe or clan might wear the same headdress.

Headdress

Checkered headdresses relate to type and government and

participation in the Hajj.

• Red and white checkered headdress – Generally of Jordanian origin.

• The pattern is historically of Palestinian origin. Black and grey

• Shi’a- black turbans associated with Shi’a clergy who are somehow connected to the Prophet Muhammed or Ali    Ibn Abi Talib the cousin of the Prophet who was the

4th Khalif of Islam and leader of the

Shi’a sect. Those who wear white turbans are associated

with the lower echelons of the Shi’a hierarchy.

ARAB DRESS WOMAN

Adherence to traditional dress varies across societies. (More

traditional—Saudi Arabia Less traditional – Egypt)

• Traditional Arab dress features the full length body cover

(abayah, jilbob, or chador) and veil (hijab or chador).

• Concerns of modesty are the reason for the dress.

• The most devoted women cover their faces as well as the

bodies in veils/robes.

• Rural women, who typically work in the fields, may wear less

restrictive garments lighter in color and weight

WOMEN IN ARAB SOCIETY

Arab women are typically subordinate to men in their societies. The

extent varies by country. The most restrictive conditions exist on the

Arabian Peninsula, and the most relaxed conditions exist in the urban

areas of Egypt, Syria and Lebanon

THINGS TO DO:

􀂾 Respect the privacy  and protected role of women in Arab societies.

􀂾 Men stand when women enter a room.

􀂾 Respect the different living “areas” for men and women. Do not expect women to eat or socialize in the same  room as men.

THINGS NOT TO DO:

􀂾 Do not shake hands with an Arab woman unless she offers her hand first, or if you are a woman. Do not flirt, hit-on, touch, hug or talk in private with women. IT

COULD ENDANGER THEIR SAFETY!

􀂾 Do not talk in public to professional Arab women unless it is business related.

􀂾 Do not try and engage a woman in conversation unless you have been formally introduced.

􀂾 Do not stare at women or maintain eye contact.

􀂾 Do not ask an Arab questions about his wife or other female members of his family.

FAMILY IN ARAB

• The family is the key social unit to an Arab. This loyalty influences all aspects of an Arab’s life.

• Arabs honor and respect their family. They highly value friendships. Family and kin’s honor most important.

• Patriarchal and hierarchal: Fathers/elders dominate

• Larger the better: Large families provide for possible economic benefits, particularly for the possibility that a son will care for his parents in their elderly years. Large families provide the father with the prestige of virility.

• Clan and then tribe in terms of loyalty follow family as a social unit,

although most contemporary Arabs express a national identity as well.

• Children: Male offspring are favored, since a son is expected to care for his parents in their advanced age, whereas a daughter becomes part of the son-in-law’s family. Also, a son can bring a family honor, whereas a

daughter can only bring shame.

• Women typically have a private area in the household  separate from men, especially in rural areas.

EATING ATTITUDES IN ARAB

Arabs are restricted by Islamic conventions from eating pork, most carnivorous animals, and unscaled fish. Alcohol is forbidden.

• Meat must be butchered in line with Qur’anic ritual (know as Hallal = “permitted”)

• The staple of the Arab diet is dark pita bread.

• Lamb is the most common meat.

• Always offer snack foods to visitors and accept what is offered to you as a guest, but only after modestly refusing the first offer.

• It is assumed that guests will accept at least a small quantity of drink (tea usually or sometimes Arabic coffee) offered as an expression of friendship or esteem. It is

considered rude to decline the offer of drink.

• When served a beverage, accept with the RIGHT HAND ONLY! When eating, drinking, offering, or passing use right hand only!

• When eating with Arabs, especially when taking food fromcommunal dishes, the left hand must never be used, it is considered unclean.

• Not eating everything on one’s plate is considered a compliment. It is a sign of wealth when an Arab can afford to leave food behind. If invited to an Arab home, leave shortly  after dinner. The dinner is the climax of conversation and entertainment. Avoid discussions on political issues (national and international), religion, alcohol, and male-female relations over dinner or tea.

The culture in Baturaja little bit same with the culture in Indonesia. But, for some case there are differences, such as :

1.       In Baturaja, speak loudly are ussual to Us because some of people in Baturaja are Ogan Ras

2.       In Baturaja, you have to respect with other esspecially with older people

3.       You may not to speak when other speak too

4.       You may not to touch the sttranger in Baturaja

5.       The differences when you held wedding party in Baturaja, because before you held the party in culture of Baturaja, as the guess you have to give “Chicken” or reward “ Money” to the bridal.

6.       There are many historical thing in Baturaja, such as : Lesung Bintang, Gua Puteri, Gua Harimau, Rantau Kumpai and other, you have to respect with that thing, esspecially for the culture in Laya and Tendikat most of the people in this village still believe with the history of “Lesung Bintang” that you may not to take the photos in this place when you force yourself to take the photos you can not do it because “something” at that place (some people still believe magic).

7.       When you Laugh out Loud you should to close your mouth using your hand, it should be polite in culture Baturaja

8.       You should be Interrupt when you want to talked with older people.

9.       You may to using your hand to eat because it also one of culture in Baturaja

10.   You may not to stay in front of the door at your house because it is inpolite in culture Baturaja.

11.   Baturaja  wedding traditions little bit same with Palembang  tradition
It is said, rituals and traditions wedding customs of Baturaja is one of the symbols that reflect the majesty and glory of the dynasty Srivijaya kings centuries ago. Golden glow and a symbol of luxury and grandeur seen from traditional ceremonies that included some golden ornaments and silk fabrics, both for equipment application procession, seserahan, until the time of marriage.

12.   Sparkling golden color is also a focal point following the bride fashion beauty accessories. Here are some traditional rituals that accompany traditional wedding in  Baturaja:

1.    Serah serahan
In the tradition Serah serahan  prospective groom's family visited the prospective bride's house to meet and make observations of the state of prospective bride and her family.
In this tradition would be groom usually send the trust of the mother or the father's relatives would be groom who can give accurate information.

2.    Envoys visited while to see if prospective bride is fit and proper to be a partner to be groom. It is also important to note the origin and lineage of each and whether the woman was not targeted anyone who ask for her hand.
Some tenong or round-shaped songket made of woven bamboo, as well as several songket tenong rectangular shape covered with batik cloth embroidered with gold thread containing foods, such as: butter, eggs, sugar delivered to the prospective bride's hand as the fruit is not official . This tradition is a sign of the seriousness of the prospective groom  sent a close relative and confidant to discuss the agreement and set the date for applying for the next arrival. Fruit hand also carried similar madik like tenong or songket and some food.

3.     Meminang atau melamar
Be groom's family and the people who sent and other close relatives to come to the bride's family's house to woo her. The delegation explained the purpose and aim to woo with the fruit of her hands and when an application is received the delivery of the goods delivered and then followed by Kato decide or determine the day and their wedding date.
Delivery or brought gegawan include a cloth-wrapped in a handkerchief placed over a tray, following 5 tenong contain sugar, wheat, juadah, fruits and so forth. Number of songket or tenong always odd. More luggage in the form of fabrics, clothes, scarves, jewelry tools, bags, cosmetics, slippers, shoes and sebagianya. Also accompanied by banana bunch as a symbol of prosperity.

4.          Berasan and mutus
Consulted to determine the two families into one big family on both sides and the family decided to set an agreement about the day, date and year of arriage. Parties who come are usually the bride's family and close 9 women with a tenong.
Envoy who represented his spokesman deliver beautiful words sometimes in the form of verse. Next the delegates to the rope binding the ceremony the family, namely by taking a pile of tobacco sasak bun (bun) and distributed to the delegates and families. Both sides chewing betel with tobacco, which means that both families have been bound together to become one family.
Fruit hand usually carried tenong, trays, songket rectangle, one shirt and a silk scarf, senting, slippers, sandals, shoes, makeup, cosmetics, accompanied fruits and bunch of bananas.

5.    Akad Nikah / Marriage
Just as the ceremony and marriage in general, this event was attended by relatives and family friends of both families. Submitted dowry usually jewelry or other items in accordance with what is requested by the woman's family and the man agreed. The groom brought into the room, then led the implementation of the prince of the ceremony.

6.         Mengarak Pacar
This event is a symbol that the bride receives her husband's personal recognition and balance, as if the bride say, at this point my husband and I took all kusambut edict and my duty as the queen of good household.
The procession of the groom's family entourage arrived at the home of the bride. The delegation was welcomed by the bride's mother. The elder woman was ready with a small bowl of rice sown (sow rice mixed coins) to spread to the groom and his entourage.

7.         Equipment used, among others such as boats decorated beautiful ornaments, colored lights, musical instruments percussion, heirloom keris, trays and gold silk.

  Photos of costume Groom in Baturaja

12. RINA FAROZA

Culture in Indonesia

MAKEPUNG , BUFFALO RACING BALINESE
makepung Bali

If Madura had bull racing , then Bali has Makepung . Two traditions are similar but not the same , but the unique spectacle that is fresh and entertaining . which in Indonesian means romp , is a traditional buffalo race that has long runway attached to the Balinese , especially in Jembrana .
This tradition originally just game farmers conducted in the sidelines of plowing a field at harvest time . At that time , they quickly clashing with the associated spur buffalo on a cart and is controlled by a jockey .

The longer , original fraudulent activity that is growing and many people have become increasingly attractive . Now , Makepung has become one of the most interesting cultural attractions and watched by tourists including foreign tourists . Not only that , buffalo racing competition program has become an annual event in Bali and managed this profesionalSekarang , Makepung not only by the farmers alone .
The clerks and businessmen from the city too much to be a participant and supporter . Moreover , in a big fight , Governors Cup for example , participants who attended Makepung could reach about 300 pairs of buffaloes or even more . Becomes very festive atmosphere with the presence of the musicians jegog ( Balinese gamelan made ​​of bamboo ) to enliven the atmosphere of the race .

1.     Culture in Foreign

CULTURE OF FRANCE

February 27, 2013

• Usually in the wedding party emerging tradition decapitating bottles of champagne by using a special sword . This tradition emerged during the time of Napoleon , who performed as a symbol of victory .
• Celebrate Bastille Day on July 14 . This activity is performed in commemoration of the storming of the prison in Paris in 1789 . Usually held a parade with dancing in the streets , culminating in a fireworks display at night .
• Tour de France , is the most famous bike race in the world is the annual bike race of France , in which cyclists cover over 2100 miles in 23 days .
• It is the custom of the French community in welcoming everyone to shake hands firmly and warmly
• They used to say "good afternoon " or " good afternoon " when entering a small shop , and say " bye " when exiting the store .
• Cheese and wine are two important components in the diet . Traditionally there are about 300-400 types of French cheese . But actually there are more than 1000 different types available on the French market .
• Wine is an important component of French culture . And French wines are very popular all over the world . They constitute one of the largest wine-producing country in the world . There are 17 wine regions such as Bordeaux , Burgundy , Champagne , Loire and Provence that continue the tradition of wine making in France .
• Facts about the French are funny beer is regarded as a luxury drink saved for special occasions , while the wine is cheaper to appear in almost every food .
• The French have a distinctive style meal called the French Style . This diet is slow , not because I was lazy , but because of what is in the eating enjoy . Second , eat on time no matter 'm hungry or not ( in contrast to those of Indonesia, the new eating after hunger ) . Thus making their body can digest food better .
• They have a habit for a lunch break during the two hours ( from 12:00 to 14




   13. NELLY APRIL LIANTI

ALUK TODOLO , RATE TRUST TORAJA

Category : Faith | Written by contributor

Aluk Todolo or Alukta are the rules of life that has been held since ancient tribe society Toraja , South Sulawesi . The rules of life with respect to governance systems , social systems , and belief systems .

            In terms of confidence , Toraja tribe population believe in a single god . Single god who was referred to as Puang Matua ( noble almighty God ) . Even so , adherents Aluk Todolo relatively open to modernization and the outside world . They believe , a rule that made ​​their ancestors will give you a sense of security , reconcile , welfare , and prosperity of the citizens to give .

           

Although religion is open to the outside , residents agreed , which has been embraced in addition to mandatory Todolo Aluk Right out of the village . Of course they are still allowed to visit there , but could not stay long .

            Outside Aluk Todolo adherents , though nobles and have a lot of money , they should not be buried with pa'tomate rituals , burial ceremonies typical village . Adherents Aluk Todolo uphold truth and honesty . They are so firmly apply the rule of the ancestors . Dare violate miserable villagers would mean , for example, bring disastrous crop failure . All errors and fraud against the law and it applies to all , including close family , distant relatives , or immigrants .

            In the Toraja myth , the ancestors of the Toraja came from heaven using stairs which is then used by the Toraja as a way of dealing with Puang Matua , the creator god . The universe , according to the trust Aluk Todolo , divided into upper world ( heaven ) the human world ( earth ) , and the underworld . At first , heaven and earth to get married and produce darkness , separation , and then comes the light .

            Other Toraja gods is Pong Banggai in Chain ( God of Earth ) , Indo ' Ongon - Ongon ( Goddess of Earthquake ) , Pong Lalondong ( God of Death ) , Indo ' Belo tumbles ( Goddess of Medicine ) , and others .

            Animals live in the underworld . Denoted with a rectangular shape bounded by four pillars . Earth is a place for humanity , and the paradise is located on top , covered with a gable roof berbetuk .

            In carrying out the ritual , Aluk Todolo recognize two kinds: grief ceremony called Solok Signs and signs Tuka as excitement ceremony . Signs Solok ceremony meiliputi seven stages , namely : Rapasan , Barata Kendek , Balang Todi , Todi Rondon , Sangoloi Todi , in Silli , and Todi Tanaan . Meanwhile , signs Tuka ceremony also includes seven stages , namely ; Detainees Bua ' , Tokonan Tedong , Batemanurun , Surasan Tallang , Remesan The , Tangkean Suru , Kapuran Pangugan .

            To Minaa is pastor Aluk Todolo considered the authority on earth are the words and actions must be held either in agriculture or in the life of the funeral ceremony .

            Aluk confidence Todolo not just a belief system , but also a combination of law , religion , and habits . Aluk Todolo regulate social life , agricultural practices , and religious rituals . Todolo Aluk ordinances can vary from one village to another . The common law is the rule that death and life rituals be separated . Toraja believe that the rituals of death will destroy the corpses if combined with life rituals implementation . Both are equally important ritual .

            Aluk Todolo once the straps Toraja society is so strong , even the foundation of the unity torayan very sturdy so that wherever people will always remember toraja go home, and longing to go back there . Sangtorayan bond that is so solid , of course , among others, are the fruits of forging Aluk Todolo it . Therefore we should be concerned when aluk Todolo was now almost disappeared buffeted by currents of the modern world . So let's think together heritage that is so precious.

1.            Culture of Spain

The culture of Spain is known for its folklores in different regions of Spain. A mixed culture has emerged in the recent time in Spain with the increasing migration of Europeans to Spain. The primitive traditions of the time of medieval age are matters of pride for the culture of Spain .

The Andalusian genre of music, flamenco fills the air of Spain with a rhythmic tune.

The culture of Spain is acknowledged for its festivals during New Year and Easter weeks. There is a fine blend of spiritual and cheerful characteristics in the Spanish culture. Children enjoy during the procession of 'Three Magi' where they receive gifts from Santa Claus.

Besides the general festivities there are certain traditions in Spain which are unique to the Spanish land. Each region of Spain, all towns, cities, neighborhood, and even professions have their own saints whose feast is a very important event and it is religiously celebrated. Other than these feast of the patron saints there are some traditions that are distinct and unique of Spain.

Bull Fighting
An aristocratic sport, it was first defined by Gonzalo Argote de Molinain his book or 'Libro de la Monteria'. Practiced in two different ways, either the rider or his mount were to face the bull directly or they practically sideswiped the animal trying to spear it during the fight. This is one of the most dangerous and unique sport of Spain and an integral part of the traditions in Spain.

The first instance of bullfighting is reported to be held during the crowning of King Alfons VIII. The bull-rings are found at a gap of few yards throughout Spain. The bullfighting season continues from the month of March to October. Thousands of Spaniards and non-Spaniards attend this national sport (Fiesta Nacional in local language).

Spain's dance carnivals with gorgeous dress codes add more interest in the hearts of culture lovers. Spanish films are loved by international film buffs. Spain has produced stalwarts of film making like Luis Bunuel, Pedro Almodovar. Spanish cuisine is known for its rich taste. Its fine taste of wine has served the taste buds of wine lovers for the ages.

Music in Spain
Music in Spain is varied in form and style, although for many citizens, it is synonymous to Flamenco,an Andalusian genre of music. But here is also existence of rock music, folks, pop, and hip hops in Spanish lands.

In the early Renaissance period, instrumental music in Spain was influenced by Arabic music. Mateo Flecha el viejo and Castillian dramatist Juan del Encina were some of the famous composers; Renaissance songbooks also exist. In the early 16th century, polyphonic vocal style grew in Spain that had similarities with the Franco-Flemish composing styles. The great Spanish composers of the Renaissance period are Francisco Guerrero and Cristóbal de Morales.

18th to 20th centuries led to the conclusion of the "classical" musical culture of Spain and led to the new venture of guitar compositions by renowned Spanish musicians like Fernando Sor, Francisco Tárrega and Miguel Llobet.

Spanish Dance
Spanish Dance can be defined as a complicated dance movement that originates from the native country of Spain and is not predominately influenced by other communities or culture. It is mainly performed by talented professionals who had formal training in any of the categories of Spanish dance and / or attained a degree in it.

However, if one does not have a formal guidance, expertise can also be acquired through many years experience. There are several Dance Academy who teach typical Spanish dances, Choreographies and organize yearly/ monthly/weekly Workshops.

The 6 categories of Spanish Dance are:

1.                  Flamenco

2.                  Classical Spanish Dance or Estilización

3.                  Folklore

4.                  Eighteenth Century Dances

5.                  Classical Ballet Dance

6.                  Castanets

Spanish Fashion
The Spanish fashion industry has taken the entire world by a storm. The place is inhabited by some of the world's most attractive and stylish people who carry themselves with poise and elan. Consequently, several leading fashion designers have set up their base in the Mediterranean country.

Spain fashion is an integral part of the culture Spain.Be it the formal suits and elegantly cut tuxedos or be it the slightly unconventional and experimental rainproof ponchos, balloon silhouettes and the fashionable checked and striped sweaters, Spanish men have a plethora of options when it comes to smart dressing. Women too, need not be disappointed. They can collect a haute-couture of some very stylish clothes in bold and dashing prints that are well cut with fine lines and silhouettes that accentuate the figure. Besides sleek jewelry, elegant footwear and accessories are also available aplenty in the country.

     14. SUPRAPTI

JUMPING STONE IN NIAS,NORTH SUMATRA

 

Jumping Stone

Almost in every village, especially in Teluk Dalam Subregency, Nias Regency North Sumatra, anyone can see the attraction of jumping stone. Several famous cultural tourist objects such as Bawomataluo, Hlisemetano, Hilianeetiha, Botohailaitano, etc, have routine attractions particularly for those foreign by the visitors.

The structure of stones are erected of 2 ms in height as an exercise for any soldiers long time ago. Given the capability to jump the stones, its considered to be able of penetrating the fortress of any enemy.

The advance in time has changeed the function of such a jumping stone activity to be a just traditional sport and attraction for tourist.

Stone that has to jump about 2 feet high, berlebar 90 cm, and 60 cm in length. With a running start running which is not far away, a young man will Nias swiftly sped past stepping stone and then bounced into the air to pass through a 2 meter tall huge stone fortress. Peak aids should not be touched and a perfect landing to be resolved because if not then the risk is muscle injury or even broken bones.

Since 7 years old boy on the island of Nias practicing jump rope kept rising proportion as their age increases. When the time comes, they will jump over a pile of rocks shaped like a prism cut as high as 2 meters. It also became a jigger their courage and maturity as a fighter Nias descent.

Traditional stone jumping in Nias island, North Sumatra or referred to as a stone or fahombo Hombo has been going on for centuries. This tradition is sustainable with megalith culture in the island area of ​​5,625 km ² which is surrounded by the Indian Ocean and it has a population of 700,000.

Reference :

Antsamok (2013, April 11).  Learn How To Dunk Fast: Jumping Stone In Nias. Brandontodd.tv. Retrieved from http://www.vacindo.com/2013/04/jumping-stone-in-nias/

10. YESY FRANICA

Name         : Yesy Franica

NPM          : 12 23 022

Class          : C.4.1

Korean Culture

Korean culture is very interesting and full of wonderful traditions. It is a magical place where you find both perfect peace and harmony, but unfortunately wars and tragedies as well. Korean culture rarely falls short of amazing. Use the table below to quickly jump to the section you are interested in.

Geography

Korea is a small penninsula on the far East side of Asia. It is between China and Japan. It is connected to mainland Asia in the North. It is separated from China and Russia by the Yalu River and the Tuman River. Between Korea and Japan is the East Sea. To the West between Korea and China is the Yellow Sea. The size of Korea is roughly 1,000 kilometers in length.

Korea is a divided country. At the End of World War II in 1948, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel. This resulted in North Korea and South Korea. North Korea became communist, while South Korea did not. (This was based on the deal at the end of the War, dividing the country in two just as Germany had been). North Korea is also known as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, and South Korea is also known as the Republic of Korea. South Korea, or the Republic of North Korea is slightly larger in physical size, while South Korea's population size is about twice as large as North Korea's population size. The fact that this division occurred has left both North and South Korea on the bridge of war.

Language

The Korean language is shared between both North and South Korea and is part of the Altaic language family. There are various dialects but the language is generally understood everywhere. 65 million people speak the Language, with 45 million speaking it in South Korea. The language is considered one of the best and most well planned languages in history. Hangul is the Korean name of the language. The alphabet was created by King Sejong in 1446. The alphabet is extremely easy to learn, which gives Korea one of the highest literacy rates in the World.

I once heard this childrens story about the language.
Story of the Language

You can also read up - in more detail, about the history of the language below.
Hangul on Wikipedia

Many Koreans also study English. It is taught from very early on in school. Many signs will be in both Korean and English. If you visit Korea, do not be worried if you do not know much of the language. You will learn what you need quickly and many Koreans will be able to speak some English.

Major Cities

Seoul is the capital and most important city of South Korea. It is very city-like and could be compared to New York City. There is plenty to do there, especially at night. Shopping stands are open during the night and it isn't a quiet place at night either! There is always something to do anytime of the day.

There are also five other major cities; Pusan, Inchon, Kwangju, Taejon, and Taegu. Seoul is a highly populated city with 11 million people. Within a very small area near Seoul and surrounding cities, there is approximately 20 million people.

Traditional Korean Society

Although South Korea is modernizing extremely fast, it still holds on to many traditional values and the old way of life. Where there are not highly populated cities, there are rural area's which are still relatively poor, and still follow traditional ways of life. In cities, millions of people live in apartments, but in the rural area's you will find traditional housing. Also, even though the cities are headed toward very modern times, people still hold onto some traditional values. One thing that guarantee's this is the language. The language has traditional values of social status and respect built directly into it. Words change depending on who you are speaking with. This will keep traditional values always present.

Palembang Culture

The old history of Palembang and the entry of migrants from other regions, has made this city as a multi-cultural city. Had lost its function as a major port city's population was then adopted the culture of coastal Malays, and Javanese. Even now it can be seen in its culture. One of them is language. Words such as "mace (the door)", "pawpaw (banana)", is one example. Was knighted Javanese, such as Raden Mas / Ayu. The tombs of the Islamic heritage was not different in form and coraknya with Islamic tombs in Java.

Art is located in Palembang, among others:

• Art Dul Muluk (traditional drama performances Palembang)
• Dances like Gending Sriwijaya held a reception to the guests, and dance that was exhibited in Tanggai wedding reception
• Regional Songs such as "Dek Sangke, Cuk Mak Ilang" , Batanghari Sambilan and Ribang Kemambang
• Traditional House of Palembang is Limas House and House Raft

Ornamental boat festival and competition

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In The River Musi Bidar. Palembang is also always held a variety of festivals every year, among others "Sriwijaya Festival" every month of June in order to commemorate Palembang Day, Bidar and Boat Festival celebrates Independence Day Ornamental, and various festivals commemorating the Hijri New Year, Month of Ramadan, and New Year's Day .

Population Of Palembang, South Sumatra - Indonesia

Palembang residents are ethnic Malays, and use language Malays who have adapted to the local dialect now known as the language of Palembang. However, migrants often use regional languages as the language of everyday life, such as language komering, Sekayu, Rawas, Musi and Lahat. Immigrants from outside the South Sumatra sometimes regional languages as well as using everyday language in family or regional community. However, to communicate with Another resident of Palembang, Palembang residents generally use the language as the language of instuction daily in addition of the native

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in Palembang there are also residents and citizens of immigrant descent, such as from Javanese, Minangkabau, Madurese, Bugis and Banjar. Residents of offspring many live in Palembang is Tionghoa, Arabic and Indian. Palembang city has several Areas that became the hallmark of a kampung Kapitan community like that is the area of Community Al Munawwar, Kampung China, and that is an Area and Community.

Palembang is the majority religion in Islam. There were also adherents of Catholicism, Protestantism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism.

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CULTURE OF CENTRAL JAVA

Central Java has a lot of art and culture. Among them is the famous art of batik and wayang is now widely known even to foreign countries. Here are some cultures about a district of Central Java:

            Traditional House in Central Java

Central Javanese traditional house known by the name Joglo house. Joglo is a traditional house in Central Java which is made ​​of wood. This house has artistic value that is high enough and only owned one of the capable. Joglo berdenah square and has four principal pillars in the middle of the call pillars, and used the composite beam is called intercropping. This intercropping composite beam upward, the upward widening.

    

Traditional Clothing of Central Java

The traditional dress of women in particular Javanese in Central Java in general the same, namely to use the kebaya, a tank top, and fabric tapih pinjung with stagen. For the men, especially the relatives of the palace is beskap wear flowers or other floral motifs. At the head wear headbands (blankon), jarik side fabric, cloth binding stagen to the side, a dagger and footwear (cemila). This is called Jawi Jangkep clothing, men's clothing, namely Java, complete with dagger

Art

1.      Batik

Batik is not only well known in Central Java, but also in other parts of Indonesia also have behind each. However, each region has a different motive. In Central Java has a relatively basic motif bound to a particular grip. These motifs have symbolic nature and set in Hindu-Javanese culture.

2.      Wayang kulit

Art puppet in its original form arose before entry in Indonesian Hindu culture and Hindu era began to develop in Java. Figure figures are depicted for the first time or Sang Hyang Guru Jagadnata is the embodiment of Lord wishnu.

3.Serimpi dance

Serimpi dance is a type of traditional dances of Central Java. This dance is performed by four dancers are all women. This number corresponds to the meaning of the word meaning serimpi 4. According Kanjeng Brongtodiningrat, the composition of the four dancers as a symbol of the four winds that Toya (water), Grama (fire), wind (air) and the earth (ground). While the role is the name of Batak, Gulu, Dhada and pole symbolizing Buncit Hall

            4.Javanese Gamelan

 Gamelan Javanese Hindu culture which is composed by Sunan Bonang, in order to encourage a love of life in transcendental (Natural Malakut) "Tombo Ati" is one of the works of Sunan Bonang. Until now, the song is still sung by the moral values ​​of Islam, is also on-stage performances such as: Puppets, Marriage lavatory and cultural rituals palace.

 5. Ketoprak

Ketroprak is a famous folk theater in Central Java

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 6. Custom

There are some common customs that the community of Central Java, including:

 - At the age of 7 months of pregnancy, a monthly event held nujuh or mitoni.
 - When the baby is born, held slametan, called brokohan
 - Tedak-Siten event, namely the event where the 245 day-old baby for the first time on the ground. In the event that the child is entered into a cage that has been decorated knickknacks.

-For weddings, Central Java community usually do cultural seclusion or may not see each other for the bride and groom to be married.
 -The day before the wedding ceremony, usually held spray event for the bride. Where the splash of water has been mixed with an assortment of flowers.

-Brobosan ceremony, which got under way across the bodies that have been on a stretcher by means squat

INDIAN CULTURE

Indian culture is full of syncretism and cultural pluralism Culture is constantly absorbing customs , traditions , and ideas from invaders and immigrants while continuing to maintain a well-established tradition and spread the culture of India to other places in Asia .
India is one of the countries - countries in the world that still adhere to their indigenous majority . sometimes some fairly rare kjarena had not been abandoned in accordance with modern India . India is somewhat unique , for sure there will not be exhausted - endless discuss about ethnic and culture of India from its unique clothes sari to a variety of other unique cultures .

1 . Clothes indigenous Indian

Traditional clothing vary by region in India . Colorful traditional dress and style depends on various factors , especially climate . A cloth draped clothing is a popular fashion in India . Woman wearing sari called , and a man wearing a dhoti or lungi called . Clothes of cloth sewn also popular , such as salwar kameez worn women . Men wearing kurta pajamas following , in addition to long pants and shirts are also popular European style     

2 . Cuisine Traditional

Indian cuisine includes a wide range of typical dishes from the various regions in India . The hallmark of Indian cuisine is the use of spices and herbs that diverse . Indian staple food is rice ( especially in southern and eastern India ) and wheat in eastern India . Spices like pepper originates from the Indian subcontinent . Chili became popular in India due to be introduced by the Portuguese . examples of the most popular Indian cuisine is Murg Makhani and Martabak

UNIQUE CULTURAL SOCIETY INDIA

• Culture Sati
Culture Sati is a funeral practice among some Hindu communities in which a recently widowed woman would voluntarily or by force and coercion to sacrifice himself burnt on the funeral pyre of her husband . This practice is now rare and abandoned in modern India .

• Crab Ritual
In the Indian city of Gujarat , on the occasion of Makar Sankranti , hundreds of followers of Hinduism stand in long queues to offer crab as a sacrifice to Lord Shiva in the temple of God in mid-January . Offer crabs have become age-old rituals and the people believe that their wishes will be fulfilled by offering crab at the Ramnath Shiv temple Ghela .

• Burying Tradition
Another Hindu tradition and a very strange is the practice of burying disabled children live up to their necks for six hours during a solar eclipse for about six hours ; Hindus say that they are doing this practice to negate the ill-effects caused by the eclipse of the sun .

• Thaipusam
Thaipusam is a festival celebrated by Tamil Hindus during the Tamil month of Thai ( January-February ) , is also celebrated by non - Hindus residing in India - Sri Lanka , Malaysia and South Africa ; Thaipusam is dedicated to the Hindu god Murugan , son of Shiva and Parvati . On Thaipusam day , most of the people of the god Murugan gave him fruits and flowers yellow or orange color , favorite colors and also adorn dresses of the same color , many people also torture their bodies to please the gods to forgive them .

• Health Strange Ritual
In some parts of India , this tradition is practiced by Hindu religious leaders to heal children suffering from minor illnesses such as flu , fever . Every year Indian police arrest people who do this practice ; This bizarre and dangerous ritual that has been performed in India around 500 years . One more mystery man for you .

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